文体学复习
1、
Style: Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices
or patterns, most (or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language. (有许多种，此为in this book, general, linguistic-oriented), P5
2、
Stylistics: is a branch of linguistics which studies in a
scientific and systematic way concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.
•Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall
linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）★ ★
The development of stylistics The scope of study
，
Three crucial aspects of speech:
3、
① Substances [sounds and symbols]; ② Form; ③Situation
Stylistic analysis: is generally concerned with the uniqueness
of a text (what is peculiar to the use of language in a given text for delivering the message). This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse. Stylisticians may also wish to characterize the style of a given text by systematically comparing the language uses in that text with those in another. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature.
Practice 5. Analyze the following text. Policeman: What’s your name, boy
Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I’m a physician. Policeman: What’s your first name, boy #
Black psychiatrist: Alvin.
•The word ‘boy’ may be used to address a male inferior. In above
conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ‘Dr. So-and-so’ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ‘boy’, the white policeman
shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people. 4、
Linguistic description: refers to the exploration and
classification of linguistic features of a given text.★
每个category下面的各个分类
(1) The Phonology Category: Phonology here is used to refer to the
system of speech sounds in a language.
(2) The Lexical Category: Lexis is used here to refer to the choice
of words.
(3) The Syntactic/Grammatical /Category: Syntax is used here to
refer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences. ：
(4) Semantic Category: Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning
of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee.
Procedure of linguistic description
1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings. 2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature. 3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.
4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show how they form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole. }
5、（1）Text: A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length,
that forms a unified whole. A text is then a semantic unit, a unit not only of form, but also of meaning. A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not.
Cohesive devices:
Implicit connectivity Explicit connectivity
1) Transitional words/phrases 2) Grammatical device
①Ellipsis ②Substitution ③Coreference 3) Lexical reiteration
!
材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not. A: See who that is. B: I’m in pyjamas. A: OK.
• Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B’s remark to A’s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. “I’m in pyjamas” implies an excuse for not complying with A’s command (= “No, I can’t, because I’m in pyjamas.”) A’s second remark implies that he accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do (= OK. I’ll go myself and see.” Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.
（2）Context: Context refers to all elements of a communicative
situation. (One is “linguistic context”, referring to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. The other is “extra-linguistic context” or “context of situation”, referring to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. )
Contextual factors:★
{
①Field of discourse(语场)：the institutional setting, private or
public, in which a piece of language occurs, embracing not only the subject matter in hand(正在进行中的主要的事情), but the whole activity of the speaker or participant in a setting, which corresponds to Halliday’s “ideational function” of language.
②Tenor(语旨)：The participants, their education, social status, the
role-relationship between the addresser and the addressee; the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance. (It’s concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener, their relative status, their attitude, and their role relations.)
③Mode(语式)：the medium of communication——the graphic signs [visual]
or sound waves [auditory] by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to anther; Channel; channel limitation; other detailed choices, the functions of language in the particular situation.
•Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation
(Jenny comes to Alan’s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)
Alan: Won’t you come in, Miss-er-. Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright. -
Alan: I’m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.) Alan: Oh won’t you make yourself comfortable, Jenny (After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)
Jenny: Mr. Marlow … Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)
The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as “Mr. Marlow”.
Linguistic Items
6、Speech sounds:★
》
(1) Stress: Stress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is the result
of extra force used in pronouncing a particular word or syllable. a) To show emphasis; b) To show surprise, anger, doubt, horror or excitement; c) To distinguish meaning of identical words or phrases. P23
(2) Pause: Pause refers to the brief interruption of the articulatory
process between consecutive linguistic units such as sounds, syllables, words, phrases and sentences.
a) voiced pause or filled pause; b) silent pause Function: P23
(3) Pitch: This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a
listener is called “pitch” and to indicate different feelings or attitudes, such as agreement, doubt, surprise, delight, scorn, abhorrence, or hatred. a) The falling pitch; b) The rising pitch; c) The fall-rise pitch; d) The rise-fall pitch; e) The level pitch; f) The fall-plus-rise pitch. (各用在什么情境下，有什么作用P24~25)
(4) Tempo: Tempo refers to the speed of speaking. Tempo reflected in
monosyllables: a) quick and clipped syllables; b) loose and drawled syllables; c) slow and held syllables. Tempo reflected in sentences: a) the quick “allegro”; b) the slow “lendo”; c) the increasing “accelerando”; d) the decreasing “rallentando”.
Function: Generally speaking, a quick tempo indicates excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation, whereas a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis, disagreement, hesitation, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc.
7、Graphological Items ——the study of writing system of a language
?
Graphological level——the expression or realization of language in
its writing system (1)
Punctuation ( the dash破折号, the colon冒号, the exclamation
mark感叹号)；各自用处效果
(2) Capitalization (3) Italics 斜体
(4)
Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphing refers to the way in which
a text is divided into paragraphs. It is a device to reveal the
relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.
各自用处效果 8、Lexical Items
(1) General or Specific .
(2) Anglo-Saxon or Latinate (3) Other Lexical Items
9、Syntactic/Grammatical Items
(1) Clause Types
Clause: A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. It is a group
of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb, often functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.
1) In terms of the clause constituents, there are 5 basic types: 2) In terms of the structure of the verb phrases (if any) in a clause:
① Finite clauses are clauses in which the first or the only verb phrase
is a finite form. (
. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.
② Nonfinite clauses（非限定从句）are clauses whose verb phrase is
non-finite, . an –ing participle. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.
③ Verbless clauses（无动词分句）are clauses which contain no verb
element, .: Hundreds of people were killed in the fire, many of them children.
3) In terms of functions in a sentence:
①Independent clause, not subordinate to another clause. . I am a teacher.
②Subordinate clause is a clause which forms part of another clause
as its element, or as constituent of a phrase within a clause. a) @
b)
nominal clause（名词性从句）. What he said is true.
c) relative clause（关系从句）functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase.
. People who smoke annoy me.
d) comparative clause, than, as
e) adverbial clauses denoting time, place, reason, etc.
(2) Sentence Types
Sentence: A sentence is, grammatically, the largest unit of grammatical
organization within which parts of speech and grammatical classes are to function.
1)
—
2)
In terms of complexity or the number of constituent clauses:
① Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause. ② Multiple sentence consists of more than one clause.
a) Compound sentence（复合句）consists of two or more independent
clauses with no dependent clauses.
.: The storm is over, but the ground is still wet.
b) Complex sentence（复杂句）consists of one independent clause and
one or more dependent clause,
.: Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet.
c) Compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses, one being compound, and at least one complex dependent clause, .: |
Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet, and we cannot go out for a walk. 3) In terms of grammaticality:
①Major sentence is a sentence (simple or multiple) which conforms to
the regular patterns of clause structures. (formal in style)
②Minor sentence does not conform to the regular clause patterns,
.: Oh, if I were you!
All aboard!
4) In terms of function: ①Declarative sentence（陈述句）
/
②Interrogative sentence（疑问句）
a) General question b) Special question c) Alternative question
d) Disjunctive question（反义疑问句） ③Imperative sentence（命令、祈使、要求） ④Exclamatory sentence（感叹句） 5) In terms of sentence length:
{
①Short sentence（casual, easy, informal, emphatic, eye-catching, to
the point, effective, express a concept）
② long sentence
6) In terms of the beauty of structure or emphasis:
① Periodic sentence（圆周句）is a sentence which suspends the completion of the main thought until(near) the end,
.:
Every time a Cooper person is in peril, and absolute silence is worth four dollars a minute, he is sure to step on a dry twig.
②Loose sentence（松散句）in contrast completes the main thought well
before the end.
③ Balanced sentence contains two distinct halves or parts, each
of about the same length and importance,
：
.: In Plato’s opinion man was made for philosophy; in Bacon’s opinion philosophy was made for man.
(beautiful in form, impressive in meaning; formal writings, expository and argumentative prose, public speech)
10、British/American English
British English
范围：EFL（mother tongue）: Britain; The Irish Republic； Australia；
New Zealand；South Africa；The West Indian Island
ESL：Singapore；Malaysia
%
Three periods: Old English, Middle English, Modern EnglishAmerican English
范围：EFL：（mother tongue）The United States of America; Canada ESL：Mexico；The Philippines; Samoa（萨摩亚） History of AmE:
Differences between BrE & AmE: 每项具体例子要看 (1) In Vocabulary (2) In Grammar
-
① The use of present perfect (BrE) or past tense (AmE)
② The use of “have” or “have got” to indicate possession ③ The use of “got” (BrE) or “gotten” (AmE) ④ The use of different prepositions ⑤ The use of different expressions
(3) In Spelling
(4) In Pronunciation
(RP=Received Pronunciation GA=General American)
；
11、Spoken English & Written English（口头语和书面语） （1）Medium: Medium refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or sound
waves (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person (addresser) to another (addressee).
Martin Joos’ classification
（2）区别：
① At the lexical level
② At the syntactical/grammatical level ③ At the phonological/graphological level
《
④ Semantically
补充：Striking differences 1) Hearer/Reader involvement.
Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer
Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).
A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible. 2) Linguistic explicitness
In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information. … The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.
Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal background knowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper. 3) Preparedness
Writing is on the whole more ‘careful’ than speaking.
Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained. Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.
Stylistic differences <
Spoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical
and phonological/ graphological features. Gregory(19107):
1) Distinctions amongst speech
Speech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).
Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.
Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written. 2) Distinctions amongst writing The text that has been written may be written to be spoken as if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken. `
a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.
b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.
c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read. d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).
（3）① Electronic English (E-Discourse): Electronic English is
a general term, and it is used to here to refer to the computer-mediated English, which can also be labeled by other names through slight
differences exist.
② Nature of Electronic English:
E-English is interactive, electronic, communicative in nature, with the text presented on the screen.
?
③ Stylistic features:
a) Lexically
b) Syntactically
12、Formal & Informal（会辨别formality）★
(1) Formality: Formality refers to the way in which the style or tone
of language will vary in appropriateness according to the social context: the occasion, the number of hearers, and the role-relationship——the relationship between the roles adopted by the addresser and the addressee in a given situation.
Formal——Common core——Formal 、
补充：Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language Functional tenor and degrees of formality
tenor tells us the addresser’s intention of using the language. functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum.
an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience. an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal. Martin Joos’ classification
(Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:
'
5 levels: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.
The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony. The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much
attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May I present Mr Smith '). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for that particular event.
The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), and participants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and give a significant amount of background material.
In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.
The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form. 第六种：The Gobbledygook 冗长的废话，官话 %
My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward. 2) My dear father has just expired. 3) My father has just passed away. 4) My dad has died.
5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin Joos Joos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen style of (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.
(2) Politeness
Politeness refers to a) how languages express the social distance
between speakers and their different role-relationships; b) how face-work, that is, the attempt to establish, maintain, and save face during conversation, is carried out in a speech community.
…
(3) Impersonality（非人格性，非人称性）
Impersonality: Any discourse that is described as impersonal is marked
by a distinct lack of the personal and informal mode.
Language markers indicating degrees of impersonality include:
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
,
the generic pronoun one;
the third person nouns instead of personal pronouns; the passive voice;
the introductory it as a sentence beginner; abstract nouns or nominal groups.
(5) Accessibility（可读性）
Accessibility, synonymous with acceptability, or readability, refers
to whether a piece of language is easy to understand by the addressee.
Fog index（Robert Gunning） 符合指数，可读性程度★ Fog Index=（L+H）
L=the average sentence length in a passage
H=the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passage What should be known:
①
② the total number of words;
③ the total number of sentences;
④ the total number of hard words( at least 3 syllables, not counting
inflection or compounding). Smaller=easier
An easily accessible text: about 10 or fewer An casual conversation: about 5 A legal document: more than 20
！
Practice: 书P69
[
13、Women & Men / Black English / Taboo & Euphemism
Taboo: Taboo is often used to refer to a word or expression which is
avoided by some people for religious, political, social, sexual, or other reasons and is usually replaced by a corresponding euphemism.
Euphemism: A euphemism is often defined as substituting an inoffensive
or pleasant word or expression for a more offensive one. Euphemism can even make the harsh reality appear neutral, which is why they are often employed by politicians in order to take the people in and endear themselves to the public.
14、Conversation（定义，特征，各level 特征分析）
Conversation refers to the act or an instance of talking together, for
example, a familiar talk between friends; a verbal exchange of ideas, etc.
—
Common features:
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥
@
informality inexplicitness normal non-fluency lexical banality syntactic looseness
randomness of subject matter
15、Public speaking（定义，特征，构成要素）
(1) Public speeches are speeches delivered in public for a special
purpose, such as open-class lectures or seminars in a university, religious preaches in the church, speeches delivered at a meeting or conference, the inaugural address of the president elect, etc.
(2) General features: formal in style, clear and vivid in tone,
persuasive in purpose
(3) Types
①The informative ② The persuasive ③ The entertaining ④ The stimulating
*
(4) Ways of delivery（效果，分别的优缺点）
① Reading from a manuscript ② Reciting from memory ③ Impromptu speaking
④ Extemporaneous speaking（outline）三四两种的区别
16、News Reporting★
(1) News reporting is the reporting of anything timely which has
importance, use or interest to a considerable number of persons in a publication audience.
…
(2) Classification
①Place：National & Provincial
②Contents: Quality Papers（严肃性）& Popular Papers（大众性） ③Time: Morning, noon, evening, Sunday ④Nature: Hard news（纯新闻），Soft news
(3) Field: politics, economy, military, culture, technology, etc. Tenor: the journalists and masses different purposes
Mode: radio, broadcast, TV broadcast, newspaper, and magazine.
@
(4) Definition of news
(5) News value: timeliness, freshness（时新性）；importance, prominence
（显著性）；locality, proximity（接近性）；oddity, weirdness, novelty（新奇性）；interest
(6) The Make-up of News Report★书上例子及课后习题一定要看 3 parts: the headline, the lead, the body 1> The Headline
①Definition: the text in large bold type at the top of the newspaper
article, indicating the nature of the article below it.
【
②Function:
a) to advertise or sell the news b) to summarize the story c) to beautify the page
⑤ Main features:
a) The omission of articles and the link verb b) Frequent use of abbreviations c) Present tense is often used d) | e) Short powerful words are often employed f) The use of pre-modification
g) Frequent use of figures of speech
⑥ Lexical features:
a) a cronym and shortened words（缩略词和截短词） b) colloquial and conversational words（口语化词） c) midget words（小词）
d) the use of pre-modification
、
⑦ Formats of Headlines
a) The banner/streamer 通栏标题
b) The flush left head 左对齐式（垂直式）标题 c) The dropped line/indented head d) The centered head e) * f) The cross-line/key line head单行标题 g) The step head 齐头标题 h) The pyramid head
i) The inverted pyramid head j) The jump head
2> The Lead导语
①
Definition: The lead is the first or the first few paragraphs
of the news report, consisting of the newest, most important, or the most attractive facts.
② Who, what, when, where, ,why
③
Features: succinct, informative and intriguing
④ Forms:
a) The contrast lead对比式导语 b) The question lead提问式导语 c) The quotation lead引语式导语 d) The blind lead 盲式导语
e) The descriptive lead描写性导语 f) The main fact lead 主要事实导语 g) The anecdotal lead 轶事导语 h) The personal lead
3> The body
①The body is the main part of the news report. ②Writing method:
a) The inverted pyramid method b) The chronological method c) The highlight method
(7) Stylistic features
17、Advertising书上例子要看
①Advertising is the non-personal communication of information,
usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about the products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through various media.
② Function:
a) Information giving function
b) Demand-creating function
c) Distribution stimulating function d) New customer introducing function e) Get-action function
f) Good-will establishing function
③ Classification:
a) By medium, newspaper ads, magazine ads, TV ads, radio ads, direct mail ads, outdoor ads, human body ads, Internet ads, etc.
b) By audience, consumer ads, business ads(commercial ads); service ads, specified ads, charity ads, etc.
c) By writing methods, hard-sell ads(intellect, fact, reason, telling advantages, serious, factual, accurate, objective) and soft-sell ads(emotion, figures of speech)
⑤ Elements of ads
Headline, the illustrations, the body copy, the slogan, the trade-mark, and the standing details (supplementary items).
⑥ Writing methods of the body-copy
a) The straight-line copy (objective, industrial products, cars,
camera, with complicated structures) b) The narrative copy (story-telling)
c) The testimonial copy ( use some VIPs or people in real life
to introduce the product)
⑦Stylistic features
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