鸟类

warm-blooded vertebrate of the class Aves, unique in having feathers, the one major characteristic that distinguishes them from all other animals. Birds have a four-chambered heart (shared with all mammals), forelimbs modified into wings (shared with bats), a calcareous-shelled egg, and keen vision, the major sense they rely on for information about the environment. Their sense of smell is not highly developed, and auditory range is limited. Most birds are diurnal in habit. There are approximately 8,700 living species, and more than 1,000 extinct species have been identified from fossil remains. The smallest living bird is generally acknowledged to be the bee hummingbird of Cuba, which is 6.3 centimetres (2.5 inches) long and weighs less than 3 grams (about 0.1 ounce). The largest living bird is the ostrich (see photograph), which may stand 2.5 metres (8 feet) tall and weigh 135 kilograms (300 pounds). Some extinct birds were even larger: the largest of the moas of New Zealand and the elephant birds of Madagascar may have reached over 3 metres (10 feet) in height. Among flying birds, the wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan, up to 3.5 metres (11.5 feet), and the trumpeter swan perhaps the greatest weight, 17 kilograms (38 pounds). A Pleistocene condorlike bird, Teratornis incredibilis, had an estimated wingspan of about 5 metres (16.5 feet) and was by far the largest known flying bird. The ability to fly has permitted an almost unlimited radiation of birds, so that they are now found virtually everywhere on earth, from occasional stragglers over the polar ice caps to complex communities in tropical forests. In general the number of species found breeding in a given area is directly proportional to the size of the area and the diversity of habitats available. The total number of species is also related to such factors as the position of the area with respect to migration routes and wintering grounds of species that nest outside the area. In the United States, Texas and California have both the largest number of species recorded (545 and 461, respectively, including both resident and migrant species) and the largest number breeding (300 and 286). Seven hundred and seventy-five species, 650 of them breeding, have been recorded from North America north of Mexico. The figures for Europe exclusive of the erstwhile U.S.S.R. are 577 and 420, and the figures for the former Soviet states are 704 and 622. Costa Rica, with an area of only about 51,000 square kilometres (about 20,000 square miles) and a known avifauna of at least 758 species, probably has the most diversified group for its size of any country. Bird and human relationships Wild birds and their eggs have been at least incidental sources of food for humans since their origin and still are in most societies. The eggs of some colonial seabirds, such as gulls, terns, and murres, or guillemots, and the young of some shearwaters (muttonbirds) are even now harvested in large quantities. With the development of agrarian human cultures, several species of birds became domesticated. Of these, chickens, ducks, geese, and pigeons, descended from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), greylag goose (Anser anser), and rock dove (Columba livia), respectively, were taken in early and have been selectively bred into many varieties. After the discovery of the New World, the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), which had already been domesticated by the Indians, and the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) were brought to Europe and produced several varieties. Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) from Africa were also widely exported and kept not only for food but because they are noisy when alarmed, thus warning of the approach of intruders. Besides being a food source, pigeons have long been bred and trained for carrying messages, and the ability of frigate birds to “home” to their

nesting colonies has enabled inhabitants of the South Seas to send messages by these birds. With the development of modern culture, hunting evolved from a foraging activity to a sport, in which the food value of the game became secondary. Large sums are now spent annually on hunting waterfowl, quail, grouse, pheasants, doves, and other game birds. Sets of rules and conventions have been set up for hunting, and in one elaborate form of hunting, falconry, there is not only a large body of specialized information on keeping and training falcons but also a complex terminology, much of it centuries old. Feathers have been used for decoration since early times. Their use in the headdresses of American Indians and various peoples of New Guinea is well known. Feather robes were made by Polynesians and Eskimos; down quilts, mattresses, and pillows are part of traditional European folk culture. Large feathers have often been used in fans, thereby providing an example of an object put to opposite uses—for cooling as well as for conserving heat. Whereas most feathers used in decorating are now saved as by-products of poultry raising or hunting, until early in the 20th century, egrets, grebes, and other birds were widely shot for their plumes alone. Ostrich farms have been established to produce plumes. Large quills were once widely used for writing, and feathers have long been used on arrows and fishing lures. Many birds are kept as pets. Small finches and parrots are especially popular and easy to keep. Of these, the canary (Serinus canaria) and the budgerigar of Australia (Melopsittacus undulatus, sometimes called parakeet) are widely kept and have been bred for a variety of colour types. On large parks and estates, ornamental species like peafowl (Pavo) and various exotic waterfowl and pheasants are often kept. Zoological parks in many cities import birds from many lands and are a source of recreation for millions of people each year. With the rise of agriculture, man's relationship with birds became more complex. In regions where grain and fruit are grown, depredations by birds may be a serious problem. In North America various species of blackbirds (family Icteridae) are serious pests in grainfields; while in Africa a grain-eating finch, the red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea), occurs, like locusts, in plague proportions so numerous that alighting flocks may break the branches of trees. The use of city buildings for roosts by large flocks of starlings and blackbirds is also a problem, as is the nesting of albatrosses on airplane runways on Pacific islands. As a result of these problems, conferences on the control of avian pests are held with increasing frequency. Although birds are subject to a great range of diseases and parasites, few of these are known to be capable of infecting man. Notable exceptions are ornithosis (or psittacosis), caused by one or more viruses that are transmitted directly to man from pigeons, parrots, and a variety of other birds, a serious and sometimes fatal disease resembling virus pneumonia. Encephalitis, an inflammation of the brain, is also serious and is transmitted from birds to man and to his domestic animals by biting arthropods, including mosquitos. Wild birds may also act as reservoirs for diseases that adversely affect domesticated birds. Much work has been done recently on the ecology of viruses, with more and more of them being found in birds. The study of birds has contributed much to both the theoretical and practical aspects of biology. Darwin's studies of the Galápagos finches and other birds during the voyage of the “Beagle” were important in his formulation of the idea of the origin of species through natural selection. Study collections of birds in research museums still provide the bases for important studies of geographic variation, speciation, and zoogeography, because birds are one of the best known of animal groups. Early work on the domestic fowl added to the development of both genetics and embryology. The study of animal behaviour (ethology) has been based to a large extent

on studies of birds by Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and their successors. Birds also have been the primary group in the study of migration and orientation and the effect of hormones on behaviour and physiology. Birds feature prominently in mythology and the literature of many countries. Some of their attributes, real or imagined, have led to their symbolic use in art as in language. The aesthetic and recreational pleasures of birdwatching are increasingly being recognized. Man's impact on bird populations has become increasingly strong. Since 1680, approximately 80 species of birds have become extinct, and an even larger number are seriously endangered. While pollution and pesticides are important factors in the decline of certain large species, such as the peregrine falcon, osprey, and brown pelican, the destruction of natural areas and introduction of exotic animals and diseases have probably been the most devastating. Concerted efforts are required to ensure the survival of rare species and to learn as much as possible about them.

简介

温血脊椎动物类的鸟类，羽毛中有独特的，一个主要特点，区别于其他动物它们。鸟类有一个四腔心（与所有哺乳动物共享），前肢变成翅膀修改（与蝙蝠共享），一钙质壳鸡蛋，敏锐的目光，主要依赖感，他们关于环境的资料。他们的嗅觉并不发达，和听觉范围是有限的。大多数鸟类的习惯昼夜。大约有8700名生物物种，以及超过1000种灭绝已确定从化石。

最小的活鸟一般公认为是古巴，蜂蜂鸟的为6.3厘米（2.5英寸）长，重量超过300克（约0.1盎司）少。最大的活鸟是鸵鸟（见照片），这可能站在2.5米（8英尺）高，体重135公斤（300磅）。一些已灭绝鸟类甚至更大：在新西兰的恐鸟和马达加斯加的象鸟最大可能超过300米的高度（10英尺）达到。在飞行的鸟类，具有最大的漂泊信天翁翼展可达3.5米（11.5英尺），以及或许是最伟大的小号手天鹅体重，17公斤（38磅）。一个更新世condorlike鸟，Teratornis incredibilis，有一个约5米（16.5英尺）翼展估计，迄今为止已知的最大飞行的鸟。

苍蝇的能力允许的鸟类几乎无限辐射，所以，他们现在几乎无处不在地球上发现来自全国各地的极地冰盖偶尔散兵游勇，在热带森林的复杂的社区。在一般的物种数量在某个领域滋生成正比的面积大小和可用的栖息地的多样性。总种数也与该地区的有关物种的迁徙路线和越冬地的地位等因素，在禁区外窝。在美国，德克萨斯州和加利福尼亚州都记录物种的数目最多（545和461，其中包括居民和外来物种分别）和最大的养殖数量（300和286）。七百七十五个品种，其中650个养殖，已记录到北美的墨西哥北部。欧洲的数字昔日苏联的独家是577和420，以及前苏联国家的数字是704和622。哥斯达黎加与一个只有约51,000平方公里（约20,000平方英里）和至少758种已知鸟类区，可能有其对任何国家的大小，最多元化的集团。

鸟与人类的关系

野生鸟类和它们的卵已至少附带的食物来源，因为它们的起源仍然在大多数人类和社会的。一些殖民海鸟鸡蛋，如海鸥，燕鸥，并murres，或鸠，以及一些海鸥（muttonbirds）即使是现在年轻人大量收获。随着人类文化发展的土地，成为数种鸟类驯化。其中，鸡，鸭，鹅和鸽子的后代，从红原鸡（家鸡），野鸭（鸭platyrhynchos），greylag鹅（Anser anser），和岩石鸽（鸽利维娅），分别采取早期，并已选择繁殖成许多品种。后的新世界，土耳其（沙海蜇gallopavo），其中已被印第安人驯化，并番鸭发现（Cairina南瓜）被带到了欧洲和生产几个品种。珍珠鸡（Numida沙海蜇）来自非洲还广泛出口，并保持不仅对食品，而是因为他们闹时感到震惊，从而对入侵者的方式警告。除了作为食物来源，鸽子早已孕育和携带信息的培训，和军舰鸟能力“家”筑巢殖民地已经使南海居民发送这些鸟类的消息。

随着现代文化的发展，从一个觅食狩猎活动演变为运动，在这种游戏的食品价值成为次要的。现在大量资金每年用于狩猎水禽，鹌鹑，松鸡，雉鸡，鸽子，鸟类和其他游戏。规则和惯例集已成立了狩猎，狩猎于一体的复杂的形式，鹰猎，不仅有大量的专业信息和培训机构保持猎鹰，但也是一个复杂的术语，很多是百年老。

羽毛已被用于装饰年初以来倍。他们在美国印第安人和新几内亚各民族使用的头饰是众所周知的。羽毛长袍作了波利尼西亚人和爱斯基摩人，羽绒被，床垫，和枕头是欧洲传统民俗文化的一部分。大羽毛常常被用在风机，从而提供了向相反的例子使用的对象为冷却热以及节约。而在大

部分的羽毛装饰用现在作为副产品的家禽饲养和狩猎，保存，直到在20世纪初，白鹭，grebes，被广泛地和其他鸟类的羽毛单独拍摄的。鸵鸟养殖场建立了以生产羽毛。大刚毛曾经广泛用于书写，羽毛早已被用在箭头和鱼饵。

许多鸟类保存作为宠物。小雀，鹦鹉尤其受欢迎，易于保存。其中，加那利（Serinus加那利岛）和澳洲鹦鹉（虎皮鹦鹉，有时也被称为鹦鹉）被广泛保存，并已为多种类型的彩色饲养。在大型公园和屋，像孔雀（pavo）和各种异国情调的水禽和野鸡观赏植物常常被排斥。在许多城市，许多动植物公园进口鸟类和土地是一个以百万计的人来说，每年娱乐来源。

随着农业的兴起，人与鸟类的关系变得更加复杂。在那些粮食和水果的种植地区，深受鸟类掠夺可能是严重的问题。在北美，不同品种的黑鸟（家庭黄鹂）在grainfields严重的害虫，而在非洲的粮食为主食的雀，红嘴quelea（Quelea quelea），发生，像蝗虫一样，在瘟疫的比例如此之多，可能下车羊群打破树枝。在城市建筑物，供大的八哥和乌鸦成群栖息的使用也是一个问题，因为是太平洋岛屿上的飞机跑道信天翁筑巢。由于这些问题的结果，对禽流感防治虫害举行会议的次数越来越多。

虽然鸟类受到疾病和寄生虫的范围很大，其中的一些是已知的传染人的能力。明显的例外是ornithosis（或鹦鹉热），由一个或多个病毒直接传染是由鸽子，鹦鹉的人，以及其他鸟类，认真，有时甚至是致命的疾病引起的各种类似病毒性肺炎。脑炎，一种脑部发炎，也是一次严重的，是从鸟类传染给人类，并咬节肢动物，包括蚊子他国内的动物。野生鸟类也可作为对疾病的不利影响家养鸟类水库。已经做了很多工作最近在对病毒生态，随着越来越被更多的人在鸟类中发现。

鸟类的研究贡献良多，同时生物学的理论和实际问题。在加拉帕戈斯雀期间的“小猎犬”航程其他鸟类达尔文的研究，在他的物种起源的想法制定重要的是通过自然选择。研究鸟类博物馆藏品的研究仍然提供地理变异，形态，和动物地理学研究的重要基地，因为鸟类是最知名的动物类群之一。早在国内家禽的工作加入到这两个基因与胚胎学的发展。对动物行为（行为学）的研究是基于一项有关鸟类的研究康拉德洛伦兹，Nikolaas丁伯根，他们的继任者在很大程度上。鸟类也已在移民和取向与行为及生理激素影响的研究主要组。

鸟类的特点突出表现在神话和许多国家的文学。他们的一些属性，真实的或想象的，导致了他们对艺术语言的符号使用。对观鸟的审美和娱乐的乐趣越来越多地被认可。

人类对鸟类种群的影响也越来越强烈。 1680年以来，大约有80种鸟类已经灭绝，和一个更大一些严重危害。虽然污染和农药是重要的因素在一些大型物种减少，如游隼，鱼鹰，鹈鹕和棕色，自然领域和外来动物疾病的传入和破坏有可能是最严重。协调一致的努力，以确保稀有物种的生存和学习尽可能多地了解他们可能的。

园林092 颜雪波