Estimating the carbon footprint of Australian tourism

Journal of Sustainable Tourism

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Estimating the carbon footprint of Australian tourism

Larry Dwyera; Peter Forsythb; Ray Spurrc; Serajul Hoqueda

School of Marketing, Australian School of Business, University of New South Wales, Sydney,

Australia b Department of Economics, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia c School of Marketing,University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia d STCRC Research Fellow, Monash University,Melbourne, Australia

First published on: 02 February 2010

To cite this Article Dwyer, Larry , Forsyth, Peter , Spurr, Ray and Hoque, Serajul(2010) 'Estimating the carbon footprint of

Australian tourism', Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18: 3, 355 — 376, First published on: 02 February 2010 (iFirst)To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/09669580903513061URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669580903513061

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JournalofSustainableTourismVol.18,No.3,April2010,355–376

EstimatingthecarbonfootprintofAustraliantourism

LarryDwyera∗,PeterForsythb,RaySpurrcandSerajulHoqued

a

SchoolofMarketing,AustralianSchoolofBusiness,UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,Australia;bDepartmentofEconomics,MonashUniversity,Melbourne,Australia;cSchoolofMarketing,UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,Australia;dSTCRCResearchFellow,MonashUniversity,Melbourne,Australia

(Received5March2009;finalversionreceived17November2009)

Thispaperexplorestheissuesinestimatingthegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsfromthetourismindustryandrelatedactivityinAustralia.Thescopeoftourismconsistsoftheeconomicactivitiesdefinedas“tourismcharacteristic”and“tourismconnected”asdefinedintheAustralianTourismSatelliteAccount(TSA).Twoapproachesareemployedandcontrasted–a“productionapproach”andan“expenditureapproach”.Dependingontheapproach,tourismcontributesbetween3.9%and5.3%oftotalindustryGHGinAustralia.Therationaleforeachapproachisexplained.TheGHGemissionshavebeenestimatedfor2003–2004,thelatestyearforwhichdetailedindustryGHGemissionsdataareavailableinaformsuitableforthistypeofanalysis.Tourism’sGHGemissionsarecomparedwithotherindustriesintheAustralianeconomy.Thepolicyimplicationsoftheresultsarediscussed.ItshouldbepossibletoadoptabroadlysimilarmethodforanydestinationwithTSA–enablingtourismstakeholderstoplayaninformedroleinassessingappropriateandeffectiveclimatechangemitigationstrategiesfortheirdestination.

Keywords:carbonsinks;climatechange;ecologicalfootprint;emissions;environment;socioeconomicimpacts

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010Introduction

Amajorcauseofcontemporaryclimatechangeisthebuild–upofgreenhousegases(GHGs)intheatmosphere,mainlycarbondioxide(CO2;IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange[IPCC],2007a,p.97).TheIPCChaspredictedanaverageglobalriseintemperatureof1.4◦Cto5.8◦Cbetween1990and2100(IPCC,2007b).Increasingly,theshorthandterm“carbonfootprint”isusedtorefertotheamountofGHGemissionsassoci-atedwiththeproductionandconsumptionofgoodsandservicesatthelevelofanindividualfirm,industryorentireeconomy.Forpresentpurposesthistermmeansthecarbon/GHGemissionsfromthetourismsectorinAustralia.

Inthe2003DjerbaDeclaration,theUnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization,theUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO,2008)acknowledgedthetwo-wayrelationshipbetweentourismandclimatechange.Climatechangehasasubstantialcapacitytoaffectdestinationcom-petitivenesswithimpactsontouristflowsandexpenditure.Inturn,tourismisamajorcontributortoclimatechangethroughtheuseoffossilfuelsandemissionsofGHGs.

∗Correspondingauthor.Email:l.dwyer@unsw.edu.au

ISSN0966-9582print/ISSN1747-7646online󰀅C2010Taylor&Francis

DOI:10.1080/09669580903513061http://www.informaworld.com

356L.Dwyeretal.

Mosttourism-relatedactivitiesrequireenergydirectlyintheformoffossilfuelsorindirectlyintheformofelectricityoftengeneratedfrompetroleum,coalorgas.ThisconsumptionleadstotheemissionofGHGs,mainlyCO2.Becauseoftheextensiveuseofenergy-intensivetechnologiesthatdelivertouristamenitiesandtoconstructandoperatenewinfrastructure,accommodationsandotherfacilities,energyuseintourismdestinationsmaybegreaterthanthatassociatedwithothersimilar-sizedcommunities(Kelly&Williams,2007).Tourismdestinationsalsorelyonsubstantialamountsofenergyforimportingfoodandothermaterialgoods,transportingwateranddisposingwaste(Becken,Simmons,&Frampton,2003;Go¨ssling,2002).Touristattractions,skidestinationsandthemeparks,allwithuseofmechanizedactivities,mayalsogeneratesubstantialenergydemandsindestinations(Beckenetal.,2003).Energyisalsousedinupstreamanddownstreambusinessfunctions(e.g.tourofficeadministration,marketingandgoodstransportation)thatsupportthedeliveryoftheseactivities(Beckenetal.2003;Lundie,Dwyer,&Forsyth,2007).

AccordingtotheUNWTO-UNEP-WMO(2008),emissionsfromtourism,includingtransportation,accommodationandactivities(excludingtheenergyusedforconstructionandfacilities,forexample),accountforabout5%ofglobalCO2emissions.However,otherGHGsalsomakesubstantialcontributionstoglobalwarming.Fortourism,emissionsfromaviationareparticularlyrelevant.In2005,tourism’scontributiontoglobalwarmingwasestimatedtocontributebetween5%and14%totheoverallwarmingcausedbyhumanemissionsofGHG(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO,2008).Airtravelinparticularaccountsforamajorshareoftourism-relatedenergyuse,particularlyfordevelopingcountriesandislanddestinationswherethevastmajorityoftouristsarrivebyairplane(Becken,2002;Go¨ssling,2000,2002).

Asawarenessoftheimpactsoftourism-relatedenergyconsumptiononglobalenviron-mentsincreases,andasknowledgeofenergyconsumption’seffectsontourismdestinationsustainabilitygrows,sodoestheneedforplannerstodevelopproactiveenergymanage-mentstrategies(Dwyer&Kim,2003).CountriesworldwidehaveobligationstomeetundertheKyotoProtocol(KP).TheKPisa“capandtrade”systemthatimposesnationalcapsontheemissionsofAnnexI(developed)countries.UndertheKP,industrializedcoun-triesagreedtoreducetheircollectiveGHGemissionsby5.2%oftheir1990levelsbytheendof2012,withvaryingreductionsagreedtobythesignatories.TheobjectiveoftheKPistolimitemissionsofGHGsintheatmosphere(www.unfccc.int/kyoto-protocol).AstheUNWTO-UNEP-WMO(2008,p.13)hasrecentlystated,“Thetourismsectorhasanimportantplaceinthat(KyotoProtocol)framework,givenitsglobaleconomicandsocialvalue,itsroleinsustainabledevelopmentanditsstrongrelationshipswithclimate”.

MostGHGemissionsproducedfromwithinthedestinationareincludedundertheKPaccountingrules.AtthistimetheKPextendsonlytoanobligationonpartiestomonitoremissionsfrominternationalaviation.Consequentlythereisnorequirementonthesignatoriestoactuallyestimateandreportontheseemissions.Giventhis,wehaveincludedinternationalaviationemissionsas“non-Kyoto”inthetablesconstructedbelow,eventhoughweacknowledgethattheprotocol’sintentistocovertheseemissions.TherealsoareGHGemissionsthatareproducedinothercountriesaspartoftheirproductionofgoodsandserviceswhicharesubsequentlyimportedforconsumptionbytouristsinthedestination.IndividualcountriesdonotassumeanyresponsibilityundertheKPforthecarbonfootprintfromgoodsproducedoutsideoftheirjurisdiction.

Inordertomeettheobjectivesoftheprotocol,AnnexIcountriesarerequiredtopreparepoliciesandmeasuresforthereductionofGHGsintheirrespectivecountries,includinggeneralstatementsofaction.Thetourismindustry,alongsideotherindustrysectors,is

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expectedtoplayitsroleinreducingGHGemissionswhereverpossible,andtheDavosDeclaration(2007)identifiesrolesfortourismstakeholders.Amongthetourism-specificstrategiesemphasizedbytheDavosDeclarationarethemitigationofGHGemissions,theadaptationoftourismbusinessesanddestinationstochangingclimateconditions,theapplicationoftheexistingandnewtechnologiestoimproveenergyefficiencyandsecuringfinancialresourcestoassistregionsandcountriesinneed.Tourismstakeholderswillbeexpectedtoplaytheirroleinthestrategy’sformulationandimplementation(DepartmentofEnergy,ResourcesandTourism,2008).Accurateinformationonthecarbonfootprintofeachofthevarioussectorsthatcomprise“thetourismindustry”isessentialforthesetasks.

SincetourismisnotatraditionalsectorintheSystemofNationalAccounts,nocountrypossessescomprehensivenationalstatisticsontheenergydemandoremissionsspecificallyresultingfromtourism.However,forefficientpolicyresourceallocation,policiestomitigateclimatechangeneedtobebasedonasmuchdetailedinformationasisavailableregardingtheemissionsofGHGassociatedwithtourismactivity.Recognizingthis,someattemptshaverecentlybeenmadetomeasuretourism’scarbonfootprint.AstudycommissionedbytheWTO,UNEPandWMOhasestimatedtheglobaldirectemissionsofCO2fromthreemaintourismsectors–transportation,accommodationandactivities–aswellasthecontributiontoradiativeforcing(i.e.includingallGHGs)fortheyear2005(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO,2008).Thetotalworldtourismcarbonfootprintisestimatedtobe1307CO2milliontonnes(mt)fromtotalworldemissionsof26,400CO2mt,withinternationalanddomestictourismemissionsfromthreemainsubsectorsestimatedtorepresentbetween4.0%and6.0%ofglobalemissionsin2005,withabestestimateof5.0%(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO,2008,Table11.6).Aglobalaveragetouristjourneyisestimatedtogenerate0.25tofCO2emissions.ToproducetheseestimatestheresearchteamcommissionedbytheUNWTO-UNEP-WMOhadtomeetthechallengesofdatainconsistenciesandavailabilityproblems.

Unfortunately,therehasbeenlittleattempttomeasuretheCO2emissionsassociatedwithindividualtourismdestinations.OneexceptionistheinvestigationbyPattersonandMcDonald(2004),whocombinedTourismSatelliteAccount(TSA)estimateswithprelim-inaryworkonenvironmentaccountstomeasurethedirectandindirectimpactsoftourismactivitiesinNewZealandfortheyear1997–1998.Onecomponentofthestudywasthecomparativeanalysisoftheenvironmentalperformanceofthetourismsectorwithothersectorsintheeconomy,especiallyusing“pressureindicators”suchastheCO2loadingontheenvironment.ThetourismsectorrankedfifthlargestforthetotalamountofenergyusedandCO2emissionsreleasedwithinNewZealand,wheninternalenergyusewascon-sidered.Ifreturnoverseastravelbyinboundtouristswasincluded,thetourismsectorthenbecamethesecond-highestuserofenergyandthehighestCO2emitteroutofthe25sectorsconsidered(Patterson&McDonald,2004).

JonesandMunday(2007)combinedtheWalesTSAestimateswithpilotenvironmentsatelliteaccountestimatestoproducedirect,indirectandinducedwasteandGHGemissionsduetotourismdemand.Theyusedaninput–outputimpactmodeltoderivetheirestimates.Morerecently,Jackson,KotsovosandMorissette(2008)providedafirstsetofestimatesofenergyuseandGHGemissionsfortwoCanadiantourismindustries,airtransportationandfoodandbeverageservices.Theyfoundthatairtransportationdirectlygenerated1.03tofGHGemissionsforevery$1000oftourismoutput(innominalterms)in2002,whilefoodandbeverageservicesproducedonly0.03tofemissionsforevery$1000ofoutput.Theauthors’emphasizethattheirexploratorystudydemonstratesthatitispossibletolinktheTSAwithEnvironmentSatelliteAccount.

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010358L.Dwyeretal.

Carbonfootprintsarelikelytovarygreatlybetweendestinations,reflectingclimate,culture,energysources,availabletechnology,activitiesundertakenandthecountryoforiginofthetourists.Thuseachdestinationshouldbetreatedindividually.Unfortunately,thedevelopmentofacarbonfootprintforanydestinationisnotstraightforward,asthereareseveraldifferentinterpretationsgiventowhatthecarbonfootprintisandwhatitshouldencompass.Intheirstudyoftourism’scarbonfootprintinNewZealand,BeckenandPatterson(2006)havesuggestedtwoapproachesforaccountingforCO2emissionsfromtourism:abottom-upanalysisinvolvingindustryandtouristanalysesandatop-downanalysisusingenvironmentalaccounting.TheydemonstratedforNewZealandthatbothapproachesresultinsimilarestimatesofthedegreetowhichtourismcontributestonationalCO2emissions.Thebottom-upanalysisprovidesdetailedinformationonenergyend-usesandthemaindriversofCO2emissions.Theseresultscanbeusedforthedevelopmentoftargetedindustry-basedGHGreductionstrategies.Thetop-downanalysisallowstheassessmentoftourismasasectorwithinthewidereconomy,forexamplewiththepurposeofcomparingtourism’seco-efficiencywithothersectors,ortheimpactofmacroeconomicinstrumentssuchascarboncharges.

Whilevaluable,eachofthesestudieshasitslimitations.Inparticular,theyfocusonlyonsomesectorsofthetourismindustry.Noattempthasbeenmadetodefinethescopeofthe“tourismindustry”inacomprehensiveway.TheUNWTO-UNEP-WMOstudyprovidesestimatesforfivedisparatesectorsassociatedwithtourism(airtransport,car,othertransport,accommodation,otheractivities).TheCanadianpilotstudyfocusesonlyonairtransportandfoodandbeverageservices,whileBeckenandPatterson(2006)for“pragmaticreasons”focusonlyonthetourism-characteristicindustriesinNewZealand’sTSA.Thesecharacteristicindustriescompriseaccommodationandcateringservices;road,railandwaterpassengertransport;airtransport;othertransportandtransportservices;equipmenthiring;andculturalandrecreationalservices.BeckenandPatterson(2006)havestatedthatthetourism-characteristicindustries,asdefinedintheNewZealandTSA,areusuallysummarizedas“passengertransport,accommodationandtouristattractions”.Theirstudydoesnotincluderestaurantsandothercateringservicesbecauseoftheirheterogeneousnature.Theso-called“tourism-relatedindustries”alsolieoutsidethescopeoftheNewZealandstudy.

AfurtherlimitationofsomestudiesistheirfocusonCO2emissionsfromthedirectimpactsoftourism.Theindirectimpactsareassociatedwiththeoutputsofeachindustryassociatedwithsupplyinginputstothetourismindustry.Theestimationofboththedirectandindirectemissionsisnecessarytoprovideacompletepictureoftourism’scarbonfootprint.WhilePattersonandMcDonald(2004)estimatetheindirectaswellasdirectGHGemissions,alimitationoftheforecastsmadebytheseauthorswasafailuretousecomputablegeneralequilibrium(CGE)analysistodeterminetheindirecteffectsonoutputoftourism,whichincreasesovertime.Incorporatinginter-industryeffects,CGEmodelinginothercontextsindicatesthatincreasesintourismtoadestinationchangeindustrybalanceratherthengeneratealargeexpansionofeconomicactivity(Dwyer,Forsyth,&Spurr,2003,2004).

ThefocusofthepresentstudyisonthecarbonfootprintoftheAustraliantourismindustry.Weprovideacomprehensiveestimateoftourism’scarbonfootprintbasedonthedefinitionof“tourism”inanationalTSA.Jacksonetal.(2008)intheirpilotstudylinkedtwoCanadiansatelliteaccounts,thetourismandtheenvironmentaccount,toprovideasetofestimatesofGHGemissionsfortwotourismindustries,airtransportandfoodandbeverageservices.ThemeasurespresentedherealsoincludeallthedirectandindirectGHGemissions(CO2equivalent)producedbyAustraliantourism.

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Thepaperisstructuredasfollows:thenextsectionoutlinesthemethodadoptedtoestimatethecarbonfootprintAustraliantourism.ThedefinitionoftourismconsistsoftheeconomicactivitiesincludedintheAustralian(ATSA).Twoapproachesareemployedandcontrasted–a“productionapproach”andan“expenditureapproach”.Therationaleforeachapproachisexplained.SectionthreepresentsthecarbonfootprintofAustraliantourismestimatedusingtheproductionmethod,whilesectionfourshowstheresultsusingtheexpendituremethod.Thecarbonfootprinthasbeenestimatedfor2003–2004,thelatestyearforwhichdetailedindustryGHGemissionsdataareavailableinaformsuitableforthistypeofestimate.Insectionfive,tourism’scarbonfootprintiscomparedwithotherindustriesintheAustralianeconomy.Thefinalsectiondiscussessomeofthepolicyimplicationsoftheresults.

TwoapproachestoestimateAustraliantourism’scarbonfootprint

Toestimatethecarbonfootprintoftourism,itisimportanttodefinethescopeofanalysisandthismeansdefiningthetourismindustry.Forpresentpurposes,theAustraliantourismindustryisasdefinedintheATSA(AustralianBureauofStatistics[ABS],2007).IntheATSA,tourism-characteristicindustriesaredefinedasthoseindustriesthateitherwouldceasetoexistintheirpresentformorwouldbesignificantlyaffectediftourismweretocease.IntheATSA,foranindustrytobe“characteristic”,atleast25%ofitsoutputmustbeconsumedbyvisitors.IntheATSA,sixindustriesareclassifiedas“characteristic”.Theseare:

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010rrrrrr

TravelagencyandtouroperatorservicesTaxitransport

AirandwatertransportMotorvehiclehiringAccommodationCafe´s,restaurantsandfoodoutlets

Tourism-connectedindustriesaretheindustriesotherthantourism-characteristicindus-tries,forwhichatourism-relatedproductisdirectlyidentifiableandwheretheproductsareconsumedbyvisitorsinvolumeswhicharesignificantforthevisitorand/ortheproducer(TSA,RMF,2008).Tourism-connectedindustriesintheATSAincludethefollowing:

rrrrrrrrrrrrr

Clubs,pubs,tavernsandbarsOtherroadtransportRailtransport

FoodmanufacturingBeveragemanufacturing

TransportequipmentmanufacturingOthermanufacturingRetailtrade

CasinosandothergamblingservicesLibraries,museumsandartsOtherentertainmentservicesEducation

Ownershipofdwellings

360L.Dwyeretal.

Production-based approachExpenditure-based approachIncludes • GHG emissions directly produced by tourism Includes industries • GHG emissions associated with expenditures in Australia by foreign and • GHG emissions from Australian-based domestic tourists airlines (inbound and outbound services) • GHG emissions from air travel by tourists • GHG emissions from imports used as inputs on Australian and non-Australian-based airlines in producing goods and services for sale to the Australian tourism industry • GHG emissions associated with expenditure by outbound Australian residents within Australia prior to or following flights (hotels, internal transport and the like)Excludes Excludes • GHG emissions of non-Australian-based •GHG emissions associated with expenditure airlines (inbound and outbound services) on outbound airfares • GHG emissions from production of imports •GHG emissions associated with expenditure directly purchased by touristsby Australian outbound travellers on goods and services in destinations outside Australia Figure1.Production-andexpenditure-basedapproaches:inclusionsandexclusions.

Allremainingproductsandindustriesareclassifiedas“allothergoodsandservices”or“allotherindustries”intheATSA.

EvenwithintheTSA,however,thereareseveralalternativemeasuresof“tourism”.Thispaperprovidesbothproduction-andexpenditure-basedestimatesofAustraliantourism’scarbonfootprint.Theexpenditure-basedestimatesareforthecarbonfootprintwhicharisesfromtheexpendituresbynon-Australian-basedanddomestictouristsontourisminAustralia,asreportedintheATSA.TheitemsincludedwithinandexcludedfromeachmeasurearelistedinFigure1.

ThesedifferencesincalculationgiverisetoconsequentialdifferencesinsomeofthecomponentmeasuresofAustraliantourism’scarbonfootprint.Theresultsaresetoutinsectionsthreeandfour.

Production-basedmeasureofAustraliantourism’scarbonfootprint

Usingtheproductionapproach,total(directplusindirect)GHGemissionsin2003–2004wereestimatedtobe54.4mt,comprisingdirectandindirectemissions:totaldirectGHGemissionswere26.3mt,andtotalindirectGHGemissionswere28.1mt.

Table1providestheresultsoftheproduction-basedcalculationofAustraliantourism’scarbonfootprint.Thetableincludesfivecolumns.Column1includesGHGemissionsfromAustralian-basedproductionandconsumption–thesecountasAustralianemissionsfortheKPmeasurementpurposes.Column2includesGHGemissionsfromAustralian-suppliedinternationalaviation.TheseareAustralian-sourcedemissions,thoughtheycurrentlyarenotcountedfortheKPmeasurementpurposes.Column3,alsonotcountedfortheKP

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Table1.Production-basedcarbonfootprint(GHGsinmt),2003–2004.

Kyoto

Non-Kyoto

361

Source

1.Directemissionsfromtourismindustries

2.Emissionsfromtourism-related

privatemotorvehicleuse

3.Emissionsfrom

internationalaviation4.TotaldirectGHGemissions

5.Indirectemissionsfromtourisminputs6.Emissionsfromimports

7.Emissionsfromtransportofimports8.TotalindirectGHGemissions

9.TotaldirectandindirectGHGEmissions

TotalGHGsShareof

AustralianInternationalaviationForeign-(Kyoto+TotaldirectKyotoAustraliansourcednon-Kyoto)&indirectGHGsemissionsairlinesemissionsemissionsemissionsemissions(%)10.511.1

10.511.1

19.320.2

4.7

21.618.8

8.11.2

18.840.4

4.7

9.39.3

4.7

4.726.318.88.11.228.154.4

8.648.434.614.82.251.7100.00

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010Note:Table1datarecordtheestimatesofCO2-equivalentemissionsinmilliontonnes(mt).Asdiscussedinthetext,wehaveincludedinternationalairservicesemissionsas“non-Kyoto”giventhatcountriesincludingAustraliadonotactuallyreportonthematthepresenttime.

measurementpurposes,includesGHGemissionsfromforeignproducers,ofeitheraviationservicesorimportsuseddirectlyorindirectlybyAustraliantourism.Column4providesthetotalGHGemissionsforeachrow.Theseareexpressedaspercentagesinthecolumn5.ThesharesofdirectandindirectGHGemissionsintotalGHGemissionswere48.3%and51.7%,respectively.Ofthetotal54.4mtofCO2emissions,14.0mtfalloutsidethecommitmentsincludedundertheKyotoProtocol.

DirectGHGemissions

Theproduction-basedtotaldirectGHGemissionsbytheAustraliantourismindustryin2003–2004was10.5mt(row1).ThisisbasedontheestimatesofGHGemissionsdirectlyassociatedwithindustrialproduction,basedontheMonashMulti-RegionalForecasting(MMRF)model’sGreendatabase(MMRF–Green;Adams,2006),whichinturnusesdatafromtheDepartmentofClimateChange(DCC,2006,2007a,2007b).Thescopeof“tourismindustries”isbasedontheidentifiedtourismcharacteristicsandtheconnectedindustrieslistedinthenationalTSA.TheGHGemissionsfromthesetourismindustrieswerethenderivedbyapplyingtototalGHGemissionstheratiooftourismoutputtototaloutputoftheseindustries.ThemainsourcesofdirectGHGemissionsareillustratedinFigure2.

362L.Dwyeretal.

Figure2.SharesofdirectGHGemissionsbytourismindustry,2003–2004.

AsdisplayedinFigure2,domesticairtransportwasthelargestcomponentoftourismindustryGHGemissionsat56.7%,followedbyaccommodationservices(9.2%),shopping(7.1%),non-airtransport(6.6%)andfoodanddrink(2.8%).Foodanddrinkreferstoanimalfood(meatanddairy)andotherfoodanddrink;non-airtransportreferstoroadtransport,railtransport,watertransportandothertransport;andshoppingreferstotextile,clothingandfootwear,woodproducts,paperproducts,chemicalproductsandnonmetalandmineralproducts.

TheestimatesinTable1aredirectlycomparabletotheGHGsorcarbonfootprintofotherindustriesasrepresentedintheDCCstatisticsonindustryGHGemissions(Adams,2006)withtwonotableexceptions.Theseareemissionsfromtouristuseofmotorvehicles(row2)andemissionsassociatedwithinternationalairtravelsuppliedbynon-Australian-basedairlines(row3).Bothoftheseposeparticularproblemsfortheestimationofthetourismindustry’scarbonfootprint.

Fuelusedbymotorvehiclesfortourism

Theproductionoffuelusedbymotorvehiclescreatesemissions,butinaddition,theconsumptionoruseofthefuelalsogeneratesemissions.BothdomesticandinternationaltouristsgenerateGHGswhenusingrentalcars.TourismexpendituredatafromtheATSAwereusedtoestimatetheuseoffuelforbothdomesticandinternationaltouristsrentingmotorvehicles,andtheseinturnwereusedtoestimateGHGs.

Additionally,householdsthatusemotorvehiclesfortourismexperiencesgenerateGHGsinthisactivity.InourviewtheGHGemissionscreatedbytourists’useofmotorvehiclesshouldthereforebeincludedaspartofthecarbonfootprint.

AustralianGHGemissionsfrommotorvehiclesusedbytouristswerederivedasfollows:TheATSAindicatesthattourism’sconsumptionoffuelfortheyear2003–2004was$4828million(ABS,2007).Tourism’sconsumptionoffuelinliterswasestimatedbydividingthetourismconsumptionoffuelinmilliondollarsbytheaveragepriceperliter,whichwas$0.9449fortheyear2003–2004(MotorMouth,2007).Finally,tourismGHGemissionsfrommotorvehiclesusedbytouristswerecalculatedbymultiplyingthetourismconsumption

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Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010offuelinlitersbytheamountofemissionsperliteroffuelburned.Weassumethatpetrolcarsemit2.3kgofCO2perliteroffuelburned(DepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Parks,WaterandtheEnvironment,2009).

Emissionsfromtourist-relatedprivatemotorvehicleusewereestimatedtobe11.1mt.TheGHGemissionsfromhouseholduseofmotorvehicleswerefirstestimated(DCC,2006).TheproportionofGHGemissionsduetohouseholduseofmotorvehiclesfortourism-relatedtravelwasthencalculatedusingATSAdataontourism-relatedmotorvehiclefuelpurchasesbyhouseholds(ABS,2007).ThisenabledtheestimationoftheGHGsemittedfromtourist-relatedmotorvehicleuse.

IntheDCC(2006)data,GHGsfromtheuseoffuelinmotorvehiclesinAustraliaareincludedintheGHGemissionsofthehouseholdsectorandnotoftheindustrialsector.Thus,whiletourismuseofhouseholdmotorvehiclesisanothersourceofGHGs,itisnotstrictlypartofthe“tourismindustry”whendefinedinproduction-basedterms.However,becauseofthesignificanceofthiscomponentoftourism-generatedGHGs(frombothdomesticandinternationalvisitoractivity),theyhavebeenidentifiedandincludedinthisstudy.

Australianairlines’internationaloperations

TheinclusionofGHGsfromtheproductionofinternationalairlineservicesbyAustralian-basedairlinesreflectsthefactthatsuchproductionisincludedinthenationalTSA(ABS,2007).Fortheproduction-basedmeasures,anestimateoftheGHGemissionsresultingfromAustralianairlines’internationalserviceswasobtainedbymultiplyingtheQantasinternationalpassengerservicesbyanestimateoftheemissionsperpassengerkilometer.In2003–2004,allbutaverysmallproportionofinternationalservicesbyAustralianairlineswereoperatedbyQantasanditssubsidiaries.Qantasprovided55,395millionpassengerkilometer(pkm)ofinternationalservicesin2003–2004(Qantas,2003–2004).Approxi-mately80%oftherelevantflightsuseBoeing747swith20%usingAirbusA330s.EstimatesfromtheGermanAerospaceInstitute(DLR)indicatethatBoeing747sproduceGHGsatanaverageof0.09kg/pkm,whileAirbusA330s(orequivalents)produce0.065kg/pkm(Schaefer,2006).Usingtheweightedaverageof0.085kg/pkm,anestimateof4.709mtofGHGemissionsisobtained.Theseestimatesallowonlyforthepassengercomponentofflightsandexcludeairfreight,whichisnotcountedastourism.GHGemissionsfrominternationalaviationdonotfallundertheKP.

Addingrows1,2and3ofTable1,thetotaldirectproduction-basedGHGemissionsfromtourismareestimatedtobe26.3mtwith21.6mtofthesefallingwithinthecommitmentsidentifiedundertheKP.

IndirectGHGemissions

IndirectGHGemissionsincludethoseassociatedwiththeproductionoffirmsthatprovideinputstothetourismindustry.ThisistorecognizethatthetourismGHGemissionsincludethoseassociatednotonlywithtourismproductionbutalsowiththeintermediateproductsthatarepurchasedbythetourismindustrytoproducethegoodsandservicesthatmeetvisitorneeds.Theseeffectsareimportanttoconsiderbecausetheoverallcarbonfootprintgreatlydependsuponthetotaleffect(directplusindirect).Aninput–outputmodelwasemployedtocalculatetheindirectGHGemissionsfromtourismindustrysector.

364L.Dwyeretal.

Figure3.SharesofindirectGHGemissionsfromtourismpurchases,2003–2004.

IndirectGHGemissionsareassociatedwithGHGsgeneratedinproducinginputsusedbythetourismindustry(row5),emissionsfromimports(row6)andemissionsfromtransportofinputs(row7).

Indirectemissionsfromtourisminputs

IndirectGHGemissionsfromtourisminputsareestimatedtobe19.2mt.Thisestimatewasderivedfromthecalculationsoftheoutputsofeachindustryassociatedwithsupplyinginputstotourismasrecordedinthedatabaseandinput–outputstructureoftheAustralianeconomyembodiedintheMonashUniversityCentreofPolicyStudiesMMRFmodel1(Adams,2006)basedonthedatafromtheDCC(2006).However,thisestimateincludes0.4mtfromindirectuseofaviation,whichhasalreadybeencountedinthedirectestimates.Itwasthereforedeductedfromthe19.2mt,givingatotalof18.8mt.

ThemainitemscomprisingindirectemissionsfromtourisminputsareillustratedinFigure3.ElectricityproducedbycoalwasthelargestcomponentofindirectGHGemissionsat37.44%,followedbyagriculture,forestryandfishery30.64%,gas(4.06%),chemicalproducts(3.66%),petrolrefinery(3.49%),electricityproducedbygas(2.82%),ironsteel(2.48%),airtransport(2.31%),businessservices(1.84%),trade(1.51%)androadtransport(1.45%),asillustratedinFigure3.

Emissionsfromimports

GHGsfromimportsareemissionsproducedinothercountriesasaresultofproducinggoodsandservicesforexporttoAustralia.

TheAustralianTSAindicatesthatthetourismindustrypurchases$36.3billionofinputs(outputlessgrossvalueadded).Grossindirectoutputwas$48.7billion,

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ofwhichitisestimatedthat$25.4billionrepresentsindirectgrossvalueaddedpro-ducedinAustralia(ABS,2007).ThetotalimportcontentofAustraliantourismpro-ductionandsalesis$10.9billion,whichisthedifferencebetween$36.3billionand$25.4billion.

ThepatternofimportswasestimatedusingtheAustralianinput–outputstructureintheMMRFmodel(Adams,2006).ItwasassumedthatGHGemissionfromthepro-ductionofeachindividualproductbearsthesameratiotooutputasitdoesinAus-tralia(i.e.itisassumedthatequallyemission-intensivetechnologiesareusedinAus-traliaandabroad).ThedirectGHGemissionsfromproductionareestimatedtobe3.2mt.

ToderivetheindirectGHGemissionsfromimportedinputs,itwasassumedthattheratioofdirecttoindirectwasthesameasthatfortotaltourism.Onthisassumption,anestimateof8.1mtofGHGemissionsisobtained.GHGemissionsfromimportsdonotfallundertheKP.

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010Emissionsfromthetransportofimports

TheestimateofemissionsfromshippingimportstoAustraliawasbasedonanestimateofthetotalGHGemissionsfromshippinggoodstoandfromAustralia,andthetourismimportshare(4.8%)oftotalimportsandexportsinvalueterms.Thisgivesafigureof1.2mtofGHGemissions,noneofwhichfallwithintheKP.Addingrows5,6and7ofTable1wegettotalindirectemissionsof28.1mt.Ofthis,18.8mtfallwithintheKP.

Usingtheproduction-basedmeasureofthecarbonfootprint,thetotalglobalemissionsassociatedwithAustraliantourismwas54.5mtin2003–2004.Ofthis,40.4mtfallwithintheKP.

Expenditure-basedmeasureofAustralia’stourismcarbonfootprint

UsingtheexpenditureapproachweestimatetotaldirectGHGemissionstobe29.5mtandtotalindirectGHGemissionstobe32.0mt.

Total(directplusindirect)GHGemissionsareestimatedtobe61.5mt.ThemajorcomponentsaredisplayedinTable2,whichhasthesamecolumnsasTable1.

DirectGHGemissions

Ofthe29.5mtdirectGHGemissions,21.6mtfallundertheKP.GHGemissionsfromtourismindustriesandmotorvehiclesarethesameasforTable1.

Table3providesestimatesoftheGHGemissions,bycountry,associatedwithin-ternationalaviation.Intheexpenditure-basedmeasures,internationalaviationishandleddifferently–theGHGemissionsassociatedwithcarryinginboundvisitors,travelingonAustralianandnon-Australian-basedairlines,areincluded,buttheGHGemissionsfromairlinescarryingoutboundAustralianresidentsareexcluded.

GHGemissionsfrominternationalaviationareestimatedtobe7.9mt.Ofthistotal,2.1mt.isestimatedtobegeneratedbyAustralian-basedairlinesand5.8mt.fromoverseas-basedairlines.Thefigureof2.1mtforAustralian-basedcarriersdiffersfromthe4.7mtestimatedusingtheproductionapproach,sincetheproduction-basedestimatesincludeinternationalinboundandoutboundairtravelsuppliedbyAustralianairlines,whiletheexpenditureestimatesonlyincludeinboundservicesofAustralianairlines.

366L.Dwyeretal.

Table2.Expenditure-basedcarbonfootprint(GHGinmt),2003–2004.

Kyoto

Non-Kyoto

TotalGHGShareof

AustralianInternationalaviationForeign-(Kyoto+TotaldirectKyotoAustraliansourcednon-Kyoto)&indirectGHGSource

emissionsairlinesemissionsemissionsemissionsemissions(%)1.Directemissionsfrom10.510.517.1tourismindustries2.Emissionsfrom

11.1

11.118.1tourism-relatedprivatemotorvehicleuse3.Emissionsfrom2.1

2.13.4international

aviation–Australian4.Emissionsfrom5.8

5.8

9.4

internationalaviation–non-Australian-based5.TotaldirectGHG21.62.15.829.548.0emissions

6.Indirectemissions18.3

18.3

29.5

fromtourisminputs(excludingoutboundaviation)

7.Emissionsfrom7.77.712.5imports

8.Emissionsfrom3.23.25.2importsdirectlypurchased

9.Emissionsfrom1.61.62.6transportofimports10.Emissionsfrom

1.2

1.21.9internationalaviation–non-Australian-based11.TotalindirectGHG18.313.732.052.0emissions

12.Totaldirectand39.9

2.1

19.5

61.5

100.0

indirectGHGemissions

Note:TabledatarecordtheestimatesofCO2-equivalentemissionsinmilliontonnes(mt).Asdiscussedinthetext,wehaveincludedinternationalairservicesemissionsas“non-Kyoto”giventhatcountriesincludingAustraliadonotactuallyreportonthematthepresenttime.

In2003–2004thegreatmajorityofAustralian-basedinternationalserviceswerepro-videdbytheQantasGroup(Qantas,2003–2004).TheGHGemissionswerebasedonpassengerkilometersfrommajorinboundtourismmarketsasidentifiedfromTourismResearchAustralia’sInternationalVisitorSurvey(TourismAustralia,2004),Qantasmar-ketshares,adjustmentsfornon-directflyingandscaleddowntoallowformultipledestinationvisits(e.g.whereaUKvisitormakesastopoverinHongKong)2.TheGHGemissionsassociatedwithAustralian-basedairlines(QantasGroup)areshownincolumn2.

Sincetheseestimateswerederived,anewsourceofinformationonaviationemissionshasbecomeavailable.Inarecentlypublishedreport,Qantas(2008)haspresenteddataon

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Table3.Expenditure-basedemissionsfrominternationalaviation(Australianandforeign,inmt).Countryofresidence

NewZealandJapan

HongKongSingaporeMalaysiaIndonesiaTaiwanThailandKoreaChinaOtherAsiaUSACanadaUK

GermanyOtherEurope

Othercountries(averageofabove)Total

QantasGroup

0.1160.3140.0600.0640.0180.0240.0080.0140.0200.0860.0200.2880.0560.5140.1160.2700.1302.118

Foreignairlines

0.2720.6100.1080.2120.1840.0560.1220.0880.2560.1920.1460.4700.1141.3220.2340.7680.2885.442

Total0.3880.938∗0.1680.2760.204∗0.0800.1300.104∗0.280∗0.2780.1660.908∗0.226∗1.852∗0.354∗1.038∗0.4187.874∗

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010Source:Authors’estimates.

Note:∗indicatesthatadd-onsareincluded(Japan0.014;Malaysia0.002;Thailand0.002;Korea0.002;USA0.075;UK0.016;Germany0.016;otherEurope0.68).Theadd-ontotalis0.314Mt.

actualemissionsofCO2fromitsfueluse.TheestimationasdescribedinthepaperisveryclosetotheactualdatarecordedforQantas.Interestingly,theactualemissionsintermsofpassengerkilometersarelessthanthoseestimatedbysomeresearchers(e.g.Becken,2002;Go¨ssling,2002)foraviationinEuropeandNewZealand.TheestimatesderivedherewerebasedontheverydetailedstudyoffuelburnedforspecifictypesofflightssuchasflightsfromSydneytoSingaporeusingaBoeing747-400aircraftoraflightfromSydneytoHongKongusinganAirbusA330.ThisinformationismuchmoredetailedandaccurateforourpurposesthanthoseestimatesemployingbroadaveragesbasedonestimatedfueluseforotherairlinessuchasLufthansaandBritishAirways.TheestimatesinthispaperarealsoclosetothoseofScheelhaaseandGrimme(2007).IncontrastwithflightswithinEurope,forexample,flightstoandfromandwithinAustraliatendtobemuchmoredirectwithfewerconnectionsrequired.Inaddition,long-haulflights,asareassociatedwithAustralia,burnlessfuelperpassengerkilometerthanshort-tomedium-haulflights(e.g.theA330susedonsomeQantasrouteshavetheleastemissionsperpassengerkilometerofalljetaircraftpriortotheintroductionoftheA380).Australianskies,moreover,tendtobelesscongestedwithlessfuel-burningairtrafficcontroldelaysthatoccursinEurope.ThesereasonscouldexplainthelowerfiguresofactualCO2emissionsfortheAustraliancase.

Table3showstheexpenditure-basedGHGemissionsassociatedwithinboundvisitorreturntravel.Column3ofTable3indicatesthenon-Australian-basedaviationcomponentofdirectGHGemissions.Thetotal,incolumn4,includesanallowanceforshort-haulconnectingflightsinoriginregions.TheestimatesofGHGemissionsfrominternationalaviationdonotdependupondistanceonly,butallowformarketvolumeandtransitdestina-tionsenroutetoAustralia.Ofthecountriesincludedinthistable,traveltoAustraliafromtheUnitedKingdom,with1.852mtCO2forareturntrip,generatesthehighestemissions.

368L.Dwyeretal.

ThisisfollowedbyotherEurope(1.038mt)andJapan(0.938mt).TheleastGHGemissionsareassociatedwithIndonesia(0.080mt),Thailand(0.104mt)andTaiwan(0.166mt).

GHGemissionswereestimatedtobe0.126gperpassengerkilometerforshort-haulflights(Scheelhaase&Grimme,2007)and0.085gperpassengerkilometerforlong-haulflights(fromDLR;Schaefer,2006).

ItshouldbenotedthatthereisaconsiderablerangeofestimatesoftheCO2emissionsfromaviation.Theestimateshereareinthelow-to-middleportionofthisrange.TheaircraftusedonAustralianinternationalroutesarelargeandrelativelynew,andthustheiremissionsperpassengerkilometerarerelativelylow.AustralianroutesarelesscongestedthannorthernHemisphereroutes,andflightsaremoredirect.Asnoted,anallowancehasbeenmadeformultipletrips,whichareimportantforlong-hauldestinationssuchasAustralia.

IndirectGHGemissions

IndirectGHGemissionsassociatedwithtouristexpenditureincludethosefromtourisminputs(row6),tourismimports(row7),directlypurchasedimports(row8),transportofimports(row9)andnon-Australian-basedaviation(row10).Indirectemissionsfromtourisminputsandimports

Indirectemissionsfromtourisminputstotal18.3mt.Emissionsfromtourism-relatedimportstotal7.7mt.Theseamountsareslightlydifferentfromthefiguresof18.8mtand8.1mtinTable1becauseoutboundinternationalaviationservicesbyAustralianairlinesareexcludedinTable2.

Themajoremissionsfromtourisminputsareassociatedwithelectricity(producedbycoal,gas,oil;40.29%);agriculture,forestryandfishery(30.64%);chemicalproducts(3.66%);andpetrolrefinery(3.49%).Emissionsfromdirectlypurchasedimports

Asdiscussedabove,GHGsfromimportsareemissionsproducedinothercountriesasaresultofproducinggoodsandservicesforexporttoAustralia.InTable2theseareestimatedonthesamebasisasemissionsfromimportsusedindirectly.Assumingthatequallyemission-intensivetechnologiesareusedinAustraliaandoverseas,emissionsfromdirectlypurchasedimportsareestimatedtobe3.2mt.

GHGemissionsrelatingtotransportofimports

TheestimateofemissionsfromshippingimportstoAustraliawasbasedonanestimateofthetotalGHGemissionsfromshippinggoodstoandfromAustraliaandthetourismimportshare(4.8%)oftotalimportsandexportsinvalueterms.Theseareestimatedtobe1.6mt.ThisishigherthangiveninTable1(1.2mt)becauseitincludesanestimateforimportsdirectlypurchasedbytourists.

Indirectemissionsfromnon-Australian-basedaviation

Thesearethesame(1.2mt)asestimatedinTable1.

Table2indicatesthattotal(directandindirect)GHGemissionsareestimatedtobe61.5mt.Ascomparedwiththeproduction-basedapproach,theexpenditure-basedmeasures

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havehigherglobalGHGemissionsbecausetheyincludemoreairtransportalongwithGHGemissionsassociatedwithimportsprovideddirectlytotourists.TheAustralianKPemissionsarecalculatedas39.9mtwithanadditional21.6mtemissionsproducedbytheglobalactivitygeneratedbytouriststoandwithinAustralia.

Comparisonoftourismwithnon-tourismindustries

Giventhedifferentmeasuresofwhatconstitutestourism,thereisnosingleidealmeasuretocomparetourism’semissionswiththoseofotherindustries.Tourismisunlikeotherindustriesbecauseofitscomplexmulti-productstructure,theinclusionofsomehouseholdemissions(privatetourism-relatedmotorvehicleuse)andtheheavyrelianceofmanydestinationsoninternationalaviationservicestodeliverinboundtourists.Whereotherindustriesarenormallyidentifiedonaproductionbasis,tourismisusuallydefinedfromtheexpendituresidethroughitspatternofdemand(i.e.tourismproductsarewhattouristspurchase).

Inthissectionwecomparetourism’sdirectcarbonfootprintwiththatofotherindustriesintheAustralianeconomy.Weemploythreemethodsforcomparison.ThefirstrelatestoKPemissionsonly.Thesecondcomparestourismwithotherindustries,usingtheproduction-basedmethodforestimatingGHGemissions,whilethethirdrelatestotheexpendituremethod.ThethreesetsofresultsaredisplayedinTable4.

Table4indicatesthatwithrespecttotheKyotoemissions(columns2and3),tourism’sdirectemissionsincludingemissionsfromtourismindustriesandhouseholduseofmotorvehiclesfortourismpurposes(21.60mt)represent3.93%ofthetotalemissions(550.25mt)fromAustralianindustryandhouseholds.Asdiscussed,thisfigureunderstatesthefullproductionandemissionsfromtourism,underitsdefinitionintheTSA,byexcludingsomeproductionwhichisincludedintheTSA(productionassociatedwithinternationalairservicesbyAustralianairlines).Usingthismethodofestimation,tourismistheseventh-rankedindustryintermsofemissions.

Columns4and5inTable4showthattourism’sdirectemissionsincludingemis-sionsfromtourismindustries,householduseofmotorvehiclesfortourismpurposesandAustralianproductionofinternationalaviationservicesrepresent4.74%ofthetotalemis-sionsfromAustralianindustryandhouseholds,plusinternationalaviation.ThisisbasedontheTSAdefinitionoftourismproduction.Someofthisproductionis,however,associatedwithemissionswhichdonotfallwithintheKP(productionassociatedwithproducinginternationalaviationservices).Columns4and5correspondtotheproduction-basedcar-bonfootprintoftourism.Onthisapproach,totalemissionsfromAustralianindustryare554.95mt.Tourism,withGHGemissionsof26.3mt,isthesixth-rankedindustryintermsofemissions.

Columns6and7inTable4showthattourism’sdirectemissionsincludingemissionsfromtourismindustries,useofmotorvehiclesandtheproductionofbothAustralianandnon-Australian-basedinternationalaviationservicesforinboundtouristsrepresent5.29%ofthetotalemissionsfromAustralianindustryandhouseholdsandinternationalaviation.Thistablecorrespondstotheexpenditure-basedcarbonfootprintoftourism.OnthisapproachtotalemissionsfromAustralianindustryare558.15mt.Tourism,withGHGemissionsof29.5mt,isAustralia’sfifth-rankedindustryintermsofemissions.

Iftheobjectiveistocomparetheproportionoftourism’stotalcontributionwithoutput,asdefinedbytheAustralianTSA,withtheproportionofitscontributiontoemissions,thencolumns4and5providethemostrelevantmeasures.However,iftheintentionistohighlightonlyKyotoemissions,thencolumns2and3aremorerelevant.However,these

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Table4.Tourism(productionandprivatemotorvehicleuse)comparedto“non-tourism”economicsectordirectGHGemissions,byeconomic(AustraliaandNewZealandStandardIndustrialClassifi-cation[ANZSIC])sector,Australia,2003–2004(mt).

Tourism(productionTourism(production,Tourism(production,

andprivateprivatemotorvehicleprivatemotorvehicleuseandmotorvehicleuseandAustralian-basedAustralian&non-Australian-use)internationalaviation)basedinternationalaviation)GHGGHGGHGemissionsShareemissionsShareemissionsShareEconomicsector

(mt)

(%)(mt)(%)(mt)(%)Electricityandgassupply194.0035.26194.0034.96194.0034.76Agriculture,forestry,fishing130.0623.64130.0623.44130.0623.30Residential(transport)44.508.0944.508.0244.507.97Metalproducts33.886.1633.886.1033.886.07Tourism

29.505.29Roadtransport26.924.8926.924.8526.924.82Tourism26.304.74Mining23.064.1923.064.1623.064.13Tourism21.603.93Petroleum,coalandchemical18.823.4218.823.3918.823.37Accommodation,cultural&personal15.962.9015.962.8815.962.86Oilandgasextraction15.032.7315.032.7115.032.69Nonmetallicmineralproducts10.351.8810.351.8610.351.85Residential(nontransport)9.721.77

9.72

1.75

9.721.74Internationalair

7.90

1.42

transport–Australian&

non-Australian-basedairlinesMiningnonenergy5.861.07

5.861.065.861.05Airtransport4.790.87

4.790.864.790.86

Internationalairtransport–4.700.85AustralianairlinesFood,beverages,tobacco3.500.643.500.633.500.63Watertransport2.220.402.220.402.220.40Wood,paperandprinting2.150.392.150.392.150.39Railwaytransport1.69

0.311.690.301.690.30Governmentadministration&

1.570.291.570.281.570.28defence

Water,sewerageanddrainage1.330.241.330.241.330.24Othertransport,servicesandstorage1.230.221.230.221.230.22Education,health&community1.150.211.150.211.150.21services

Wholesaleandretailtrade0.860.160.860.150.860.15Machineryandequipment0.480.090.480.090.480.09Communication0.460.080.460.080.460.08Textile,clothing,footwear&leather0.450.080.450.080.450.08Finance,insurance,property&0.200.040.200.040.200.04business

Othermanufacturing0.020.0040.020.0040.020.004Total550.25

100.00

554.95

100.00

558.15

100.00

Notes:“Tourism”isnotanANZSICeconomicsectorand,toavoiddoublecounting,isconsequentlynotcountedinthetotal.TabledatarecordtheestimatesofCO2-equivalentemissionsinmilliontonnes(mt).Tourismappearsthreetimesintheleft-handcolumn,asitismeasuredinthreedifferentways.Totalincolumn2andlastrowrepresentsGHGemissionsfromalleconomic(ANZSIC)sectors.

Totalincolumn4andlastrowrepresentsGHGemissionsfromalleconomic(ANZSIC)sectorsplusemissionsfrominternationalairtransportbyAustralianairlines.

Totalincolumn6andlastrowrepresentsGHGemissionsfromalleconomic(ANZSIC)sectorsplusemissionsfrominternationalairtransportbyAustralianandnon-Australianairlines.Totalpercentagesinlastrowandcolumns3,5and7aresubjecttorounding.Source:DCC(2007a).

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twoalternativesetsofdatacannotbecomparedwithoneanotherbecauseofthedifferentdefinitionsoftheindustrythathavebeenusedineachcase.

Usersofthisinformationthusneedtobeawareofthedangersofmakingcomparisonswithcarbonemissionsfromotherindustriesand,insomecases,againsttheeconomyasawhole.Thisarisesbecauseofthehybridnatureoftheindustrydefinitionsandparticularlytheinclusionofpartofhouseholdsectoremissions(privatemotorvehicleuse),theinclusionofKyotoandnon-Kyotoemissionsandinviewofthefactthatindirecteffectsandexpenditure-basedestimates(usedinourcolumns6and7)arenotnormallyavailableforotherindustries.Policyimplications

ThesimplestandthemostdirectwayinwhichtocomparethecarbonfootprintofthetourismindustrywiththatofotherindustriesintheeconomyistousethedirectproductionofGHGemissionsfromtourismproductionof10.5mt(seeTable1,row1).Thispaperhaspointedoutthatbecauseoftheenormousimportanceoftransport,andparticularlyroadandinternationalairtransport,toAustraliantourism,thatfiguregivesamisleadingimpressionofthetourismcontributiontoGHGemissions.Amoremeaningfulindicatorisprovidedbyincludingemissionsfromprivatemotorvehicleusefortourismpurposes(whichiscurrentlyidentifiedaspartofthehouseholdproductioninthenationalaccounts)andawiderinterpretationofemissionsfrominternationalaviationtoincludethoseresultingfromtransportofinternationalvisitorstoAustralia.

Inaddition,tofullyunderstandtheimplicationsoftourismforGHGemissions,wehavearguedthatitisalsonecessarytoconsidertheindirecteffectsofproductionofgoodsandservicesfortourismconsumption,alsoincludingthoseoccurringfromtheproductionelsewhereofgoodsandservicesimportedintoAustraliafortourism-relateduse.

DifferentGHGemissionsassociatedwithtourismmustbetreateddifferentlyunderinternationalobligations.Asdiscussed,someoftheemissionsfromAustraliantourismareproducedinAustralia,andincludedunderKyotoaccountingrules.Inaddition,thereareGHGemissionsfromAustralianfirmsproducinginAustralia,whicharenotincludedunderKyotorules–themainexampleofthisisGHGemissionsfromAustralianairlines’internationalservices.Itisuncertainhowaviationwillbehandledinapost-Kyotoframe-work.FinallythereareGHGemissionswhichareproducedoverseas,forexampleintheproductionofgoodswhichAustraliaimportstosupplytouristsorthetourismindustry.Australia,likeothersignatoriesoftheKP,hastheresponsibilityforits“KP”emissionsandhascommittedtoreducethem.TheAustralianGovernmenthascommittedtoatargetofreducingemissionsby60%of2000levelsby2050(DepartmentofEnergy,ResourcesandTourism,2008).However,ithasnospecificcommitmentstoreduceGHGemissionsfrominternationalaviation.TheinternationalaviationcomponentsoftheseemissionsarelargelyunattributedatpresentbutremainasignificantrisktotheAustraliantourismsector.Althoughthesehavebeencategorizedaboveas“non-Kyoto”,weacknowledgethatothersmayprefertoclassifythemas“Kyoto”.Eitherway,givenAustralia’sdistancefrommarkets,itisimportantthatthemagnitudeofthiscomponent(andfuturerisk)beexaminedasmitigationpoliciestobeenactedtomeetthechallengesofclimatechangethatmaywellhaveseriousconsequencesforlong-haultravel.EmissionsfromgoodsandservicesimportedintoAustraliaaretheresponsibilityofothercountries,butwouldaffectAustraliantourismiftheirpricesweretochangeduetotheimplementationofclimatechangemitigationpoliciesinsuppliercountries.

Alloftheseissuescreatecomplexanalyticalandmeasurementproblemsthathavehadtobeaddressedindevelopingtheestimatesincludedinthispaper.

Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 2010372L.Dwyeretal.

Informationontourism’scarbonfootprint,particularlybythetypeofcharacteristicandconnectedindustry,canhelpindustryassociationsandthemanagersoftourismenterprisestodeveloptoolswhichcanhelpthemtoactivelymanagetheiremissionsaspartofstandardbusinesspractices,asawaytoadapttoacarbon-constrainedfutureandtomanageincreasinginputcosts.Emissionsmanagement(measurement,monitoringandreductionstrategies)allowsanenterprisetobuildawarenessofenergyconsumption,identifyinefficienciesandimplementstrategiestoachieveefficiencygains.Italsoinformsinvestmentdecisions,suchasthevalueofinvestinginmoreefficienttechnologyorrenewableenergy(DepartmentofEnergy,ResourcesandTourism,2008).

Inusingtheseestimatesofcarbonfootprint,itisimportanttobeawareofwhattheyseektomeasureandwhattheydonot.Acarbonfootprintisessentiallyanaccountingmeasuretodeterminetheintensityofindustry’sGHGemissions.Itisnotanimpactmodel.Thus,itwouldnotbecorrecttoconcludethatifthetourismindustryweretoexpandorcontractby10%,totalGHGemissionswouldchangeby5.44mt(10%of54.4mt,seeTable1).Tobetterappreciatethiswecandistinguishbetweenthecarbonintensityandthecarbonimpactoftourism.

Thecarbonintensityoftourismistheoutcomeofaneconomic/technicalrelationshipbetweentourismandGHGemissions.Thisiswhatismeasuredbytourism’scarbonfootprintasestimatedinthispaper.Asindicated,carbonintensitymeasures(measuredinmetrictonnesofemissions)canbedevelopedatmanylevels.Thus,theycanbedevelopedforindividualtourists,individualoperators,industrysectors,regions,andentiredestinationsandonaninternationallevel.Thefocusofthispaperhasbeenonthecarbonintensityoftourisminaparticulardestination.

Incontrast,thecarbonimpactoftourismistheultimateimpactonGHGsthatchangesintourismflowsandexpenditurewillcreate.Thisisdifferentfromthecarbonintensitysince,tomeasuretheimpact,itisnecessarytospecifywhatfurtherchangesinGHGemissionsareassociatedwithchangesintourismduetothechangingcompositionofindustryfollowingthedemandshock.

Twoexamplesshouldsufficetodistinguishtheintensityandimpactmeasures.Forexample,ifthereisanincreaseindomestictourismforanyreason,therewillbelessspendingbyresidentsonothergoodsandservices–thisreductionalsoaffectsGHGs.Ifthereisanincreaseinforeigninboundtourism,therewillbemoreGHGsdirectlyassociatedwiththistourism.However,therewillbeotherchangestakingplace–astourismexportsrise,puttingupwardpressureontheexchangerate,theadverseimpactontheexportofnon-tourismgoodsandservices,alongwithareductioninimport-competingproduction,willreduceGHGemissionsintheseindustries.Thenetresultoftheseindustryinteractiveeffectscanonlybedeterminedthrougheconomicmodeling,preferablyusingaCGEmodel(Dwyer,Forsyth,Madden,&Spurr,2000;Dwyeretal.,2004).Alternatively,supposeapolicyisenactedtodiscouragedomesticaviation,perhapsbylevyingacarbontaxonit.Therewillbelessdomesticflying,buttouristswillstillspendmore,perhapsonsurfacetransport,perhapsonoverseastripsorperhapsonothergoodsandservices.ToestimatetheimpactonGHGsofthepolicy,itisnecessarytospecifywhatthediscouragedairtravellersdoandtomodeltheexpenditurechangesandtheirimpacts.Thisistorecognizethatacarbontax,ifwidelyappliedtoindustry,wouldchangeanumberoftechnologiesandpricesthroughouttheeconomy.Ahigher-priceddestinationmayalsoimpactadverselybothdomesticandinboundtourismflows,increasingoutboundtourismflowswitheffectsonGHGemissionsinothereconomies.Onceagain,thefinalimpactontourismprices,overalltourismdemandandglobalGHGemissionsrequire,ataminimum,economicmodelingofthechanges(Berrittellaa,Bigano,Rosona,&Tol,2006;Forsyth,Dwyer,&Spurr,

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Downloaded By: [Shanghai Normal University] At: 08:56 10 June 20102007).CGEmodelingincorporatesinter-industryeffectsandinothercontextsindicatesthatincreasesintourismtoadestinationchangeindustrybalanceratherthangeneratealargeexpansionofeconomicactivity(Dwyeretal.,2003,2004).Suchresultsareclearlysignificanttoestimationofthecarbonimpactsinanydestinationovertimeandfollowinganyshockstotourismdemand.

ThetourismindustrypresentschallengestotheestimationofitsGHGintensityandim-pactsgivenitsdiversityacrossdifferent“industries”andthecomplexityofitsproducts(e.g.varietiesofaccommodation).Ofcourse,ifindividualbusinessesaretodevelopstrategiestomanagetheiremissions,theywillneedtodeveloptheircarbonfootprintsindividually.Notwithstandingthis,asanaccountingmeasurethecarbonfootprintoftourismcanprovideimportantinformationtopolicymakersastotheGHGemissionsoftourisminanydestina-tion,thebreakdownofemissionsbysector,includinginternationalbenchmarkingandtheemissionsassociatedwithdifferentvisitorsegments.Kyotoandnon-Kyotoemissionscanbedistinguishedashasbeendoneabove.GiventhepushfromallquartersforallcountriestoreducetheirGHGemissions,themeasuresofcarbonfootprintareanessentialbasetodetermineareasthatcanbeaddressedandstrategiestobeimplementedtoreduceemis-sionswhilemaintainingdestinationcompetitiveness.Theapproachesusedalsofacilitatethemeasurementofthecarbonfootprintovertime.Thiscanbeexpectedtochangeaccord-ingtochangesinvisitorexpenditure,industrystructure,stakeholderactionsandthepolicyinstrumentswhichareputinplace(Dubois&Ceron,2006).TheUNWTO-UNEP-WMO(2008)providesadiscussionontherangeoftechnological,behavioral,managerialandpolicymeasuresandinitiativesthatcanbringtourismontoamoresustainableemissionpathway.Trendsinemissionscanbeidentifiedwhetherinaggregate,byindustrysectororbyvisitormarket.ToestimatetheimpactsofdifferentindustryinterventionsonoverallGHGemissions,economicmodelingisrequired.

Conclusions

TheemissionofGHGsisamajorcauseofclimatechange,whichisexpectedtohaveprofoundeffectsonthedestinationcompetitivenessofcountriesonallcontinents.Thesameasotherindustries,tourismgeneratesGHGsdirectlywhenitsellsgoodsandservicestotouristsandindirectlywhenitpurchasesinputswhichrequireenergyintheirproduction.Informationontourism’scarbonfootprintisessentialforinformedpolicymakingtoreduceGHGemissionsoftheindustry.

UsingtheTSAdefinitionoftourism,twobroadmethodshavebeenusedtoestimatethecarbonfootprintofAustraliantourism.Toourknowledge,theestimatespresentedarethefirstthatemploybothaproduction-andanexpenditure-basedapproachtoestimatetourism’scarbonfootprintovertheentirerangeoftourismcharacteristicandtourism-connectedindustriesinadestination.Wealsoemphasizedthatacomparisonoftourism’scarbonfootprintwithotherindustriesisnotstraightforwardbutdependsontheeconomicactivitiesthatareincludedinthemeasurements.Moreover,estimatesoftourism’sfuturecarbonfootprintwillchangeaccordingtochangesinthecompositionofitscharacteristicsandconnectedindustries.

TheseestimatesofthecarbonfootprintoftheAustraliantourismindustryare,toourknowledge,themostaccuratetodategiventheavailabledata.Thepaperhasexplainedthedifferencesbetweentheproduction-andexpenditure-basedapproachesandoutlinedthedifficultiesandmethodsofcalculatinginternationalaviationandforeign-sourcedGHGemissions.WhilethesearenotcurrentlypartofAustralia’sKyotoemissions,theyare

374L.Dwyeretal.

nonethelesssignificantinthedebateonglobalclimatechangeandaresubjecttoincreasinglyintenseinternationalscrutiny.

Variouschallengespresentthemselvesinanyattempttoestimateadestination’scarbonfootprint.Researchersneedtoconsiderhowimprovedmeasurementsandthedatanecessaryforthiscanbederived.Nevertheless,themeasurementoftourism’scarbonfootprinthasrelevanceforanydestination.Estimationoftourism’scarbonfootprintrepresentsastartingpointforthedevelopmentofindustrystrategiestomitigateandadapttoclimatechange.IftourismindustrystakeholdersaretoplaytheirroleinreducingindustryGHGemissionsalongsideotherindustriesaspartofacomprehensivepost-Kyotoglobalclimatechangeresponseframework,aknowledgeofoverallemissionsandtheemissionsbyindustrysectorareessentialtoinformeddebateonpolicy.Theapproachoutlinedaboveisveryusefulforgovernmentsandtheirtransport/tourismdepartments,tourismindustryassociationsandlobbygroupstobasestrategiesonaconsistentdataset.Aswehavediscussed,estimationoftourism’scarbonfootprintcanprovidethebasisformodelinghowclimatechangemitigationpolicieswillaffectadestination’stourismindustry.Suchknowledgeisalsoessentialinthecontextofdevelopingsustainabledestinationplanningpractices.ThemethodsemployedinthisstudycanformthebasisforestimatingthecarbonfootprintofanytourismdestinationwhichhasaTSAavailabletoit.Acknowledgements

TheresearchforthispaperwasundertakenfortheSustainableTourismCooperativeResearchCentre(STCRC),Australia.Amoresubstantialversionwaspublishedasatechnicalpaper(Forsythetal.,2008).PermissionfromtheSTCRCtopublishthepresentpaperisacknowledged.TheauthorswishtothankDrs.ThiepVanHoandDanielPambudifortheirinputintothewiderproject.

Notesoncontributors

LarryDwyerisQantasProfessorofTravelandTourismEconomicsattheAustralianSchoolofBusiness,UniversityofNewSouthWales.Hisresearchinterestsareintourismmanagement,tourismeconomicsandpolicy.

PeterForsythisaProfessorofEconomicsatMonashUniversity,Victoria,Australia.Hisresearchinterestsaremicroeconomicsandtourismandaviationeconomics.

RaySpurrworksintheSchoolofMarketingattheUniversityofNewSouthWales.Hisprimaryresearchinterestisintourismpolicy.

SerajulHoqueisaResearchFellowwiththeSTCRCandisaneconomicmodellerbasedatMonashUniversity.

Notes

1.TheMMRFmodelisamulti-sectoral,multi-regionalcomputablegeneralequilibriummodelof

theAustraliaeconomy,whichrecognizesanenergyandgasemissionaccountingmodulethatexplicitlyaccountsforeachofthe58industriesandeightregionsinthemodel.

2.Themultipledestinationsadjustmentfactorwascalculatedasfollows:Dataontheproportionof

visitorswhohadvisitedanothercountryenroutetoandfromAustraliaweretakenfromTourismResearchAustralia’s2003–2004InternationalVisitorSurvey(TourismAustralia,2004)foreachoftherecordedmainoriginmarkets.Estimatesweremadeofvisitors’lengthofstayfromeachoriginmarket.TheproportionsofthedaysspentontripsfromeachdestinationinAustraliawereestimated.Thus,forexampletheproportionofthedaysspentinAustraliaonatripfromNewZealandwasestimatedat0.96andfromtheUnitedStates(onwhichmultipledestinationsarecommon)was0.81.

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