11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 1. Both linguistics and foreign language teaching take language as their subject. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, so it is clearly related with language teaching. However, linguistics and language teaching differ in their attitudes, goals and methods towards language. 2. Linguistics regards language as a system of forms, while the field of foreign language teaching considers it as a set of skills. Linguistics research is concerned with the establishment of theories which explain the phenomena of language use, whereas foreign language teaching aims at the learners’ mastery of language. 3. Applied linguistics serves to reconcile and combine linguistics and foreign language teaching: (1): Applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction of language learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching. (2): Applied linguistics states the insights and implications that linguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology. 11.2 Various Linguistic View and Their Significance in Language Learning and Teaching Traditional grammar Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and a pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin and Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language. Prescription was its key tone. The main teaching and learning activities are grammar and translation study. Modern linguistics, in spite of the theoretical diversities, is primarily descriptive. Structuralist linguistics describes linguistics features in terms of structures and systems. It describes the current spoken language, which people use in daily communication. Its focus, however, is still on grammatical structures. Structuralist linguists are influenced by the behavioristic view that one learns a language by building up habits on the basis of stimulus-response chains. UG is also called Transformation-Generative Grammar or TG grammar. UG grammar sees language as a system of innate rules. A native speaker possesses a linguistic competence, or a language acquisition device. And UG attempts to explain the relatively quick acquisition of L1 on the basis of minimum exposure to external input. UG 认为语言习得本质上并不依靠外在的语言输入The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar. Therefore, language learning is not a matter of habit formation, but an activity of building and testing hypothesis. As for the construct of a sentence, TG grammar describes it as composed of a deep structure, a surface structure and some transformational rules. Although Chomsky does not intend to make his model a representation of performance, i.e. the language actually used in communication, applied linguistics find UG grammar useful in certain aspects. But because it is a formal and abstract grammar, it remains limited in language teaching. Taking a semantic-sociolinguistic approach, Halliday’s systemic-functional linguistics sees language as an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction. It concerns not only with the formal system of language but also the function of language in society, and its scope is wider than that of former theories. In adult language, there are 3 Meta-functions: the ideational function, the interpersonal function, and the textual function. Structuralist linguistics Universal grammar Functional linguistics The The discourse-based view of language holds that linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. 以语discourse-based 篇为基础的语言观认为语言模式存在于一段段的文本之中These patterns extend beyond the words, view of clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of language teaching. 这些模式超出了传language 统语言教学所重视的单词、断句和句子等范围。 teaching The focus of this view is on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operated. 这种观点的重点被放在完整的口语和书面语文本上，和语言使用的社会和文化语境Accordingly, the discourse-based view of language teaching aims at developing discourse competence, which is similar to the well-known concept of competence, which is similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence. The concept competence originally comes from Chomsky. It refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situations. This concept of linguistic competence has been criticized for being too narrow. To expand the concept of competence, D.H. Hymes proposes Communicative Competence: it refers to what a learner knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. It includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. Based on the above theory, in the case of foreign language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are believed to help them acquire the target language. The communicative language teaching (CLT) and task-based language teaching (TBLT) are the best known examples of such theory. There are two broad types of tasks, real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. Real-world task: it is very close to something we do in daily life or work. This is a real task because there are things like this in the real world. Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but those may not take place in real life. Its weakness: it overemphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning process; it is similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process; it overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and fails to notice universal principle that guide language acquisition. 11.3 Linguistics and Language Learning One of the controversies in second language acquisition is whether or how to include grammar in second language instruction. There are mainly two methods adopted concerning this issue. ①Discrete-point grammar instruction Discrete-point grammar instruction conducted by more traditional language teachers has been widely criticized for focusing on forms and ignoring meanings. Grammar and Language Learning ②Meaning-focused instruction Findings from immersion and naturalistic language acquisition studies suggest that when classroom second language learning is entirely experiential and meaning-focused, some linguistic features do not ultimately develop to target-like levels. As a result, a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” and “purely meaning-focused approaches”, FOCUS ON FORM came into being. The focus on form approach takes a more balanced view that although language learning should generally be meaning focused and communication oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. However, the focus on form has its problem. One question is what elements of language are most amenable to focus on form. This question has been dealt with mostly from a linguistic point of view. Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) 普遍语法相关性and complexity of language structures语言结构复杂性. Here we need to note that what a amenability is. Amenability顺从性:就是指某个语言项目通过学习而发生变化的可能性 Universal grammar if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high. In focus on form, different measures will be taken depending on whether the amenability of form is high or low, but the problem is that no one knows what exactly is part of UG. Therefore, the study of UG is what is most needed in language learning research. Complexity of language structures the variable of complexity is not easier to tackle. It is assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define and measure. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex, so we need to turn to the study of linguistics to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures. Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language, whether the input is in written or spoken form.学习者接受了足够的目标与输入时，语言学习才有可能发生,这种输入可以是口语也可以是书面语. In respect of what kinds of input should be provided for language learners, views diverge greatly. We will examine some of the views in the following section. Authentic input 真实性输入 Proponents of meaning-oriented language instruction tend to insist on authentic input. That is to say, the input should relate to the real life, and it usually neglects the grammar. They contend that ideal materials at all levels should provide frequent exposure to authentic input which is rich and varied, that is, the input should vary in style, mode, medium and purpose and should be rich in features which are characteristic of authentic discourse in the target language. Comprehensible input可理解性输入 Some experts strongly believe that any input must be comprehensible if it is to have any effect on learning. According to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen put forward the concept of “i+1” principle: the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make prepress. Input should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the learners Input and Language Learning Optimal input 最佳输入 Many researchers have conducted studies on kinds of optimal input, the following are tow of which: Pre-modified input预修正输入 It is material that is finely turned in advance to the learners’ current level.它是指据学习者的现有水平实现对语言材料进行精细调整 Interactively modified input交互性修正输入 It is material that is modified when the teacher and the learners interact.它是指材料在老师和学生的互动中进行修正 Interactively modified input is proved to do a better job. Interlanguage in language learning 语言学习中的中介语 When learners construct language, they are not only reproducing what they have learned; instead, they are processing and constructing things. The concept of language output is similar to the constructivism, which argues that language is socially constructed. 学习者构建语言，并不仅仅是重复他们所学的东西，而是进行加工和构建。语言输出这个概念和构建主义是相吻合的，构建主义认为语言实在社会中建构的。 The concept of interlanguage(中介语) was established as learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum among the target language and the learner’s native language. It’s imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner’s native language. 中介语是学习者在学习语言的过程中建立起的一个独立的语言系统，既不是母语也不是第二语言，而是位于目标与和学习者母语之间的一种语言。与目标与相比，中介语是不完善的，但它又不仅仅是学习者对母语的翻译。 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design Syllabus is the planning of a course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teaching procedures and learning experience. Syllabus design is of fundamental importance in language teaching. It serves as a bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. A Clarification of Terms Syllabus:教学大纲 a syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Curriculum: 课程计划 the term curriculum is usually used in two senses. In a broad sense, it refers to the substance of a program of studies of an educational institution or system. For example, the school curriculum, the university curriculum, the curriculum of French schools, etc. in a narrow sense, it refers to the course of study or content in a particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum or history curriculum. The narrow sense is usually used interchangeably with syllabus. Major factors in syllabus design Selecting participants Before the training program starts, it is necessary to specify the characteristics of the learner and select individuals who match those specifications. 在培训计划开始前要确定学习者的特征并且挑选出那些符合特定要求的学习者. In most cases, the process of syllabus design in foreign language teaching mainly includes selecting and grading what is to be taught. Selection involves two sub-processes: 1: the restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register; 2: the criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learnability and classroom needs After a list of language items have been selected, the next process is to put them into the most appropriate order for practical teaching purposes. This process is often referred to as grading which is subdivided into two distinct operations. We shall use the term “staging” to refer to the division of the course into time segments, and “sequencing” to refer to the problem of deciding the order in which the items should be taught. Process Evaluation 评估 At the end of the training programme, it is necessary to find out whether and to what degree the learners have reached the teaching objectives. There are two different kinds of evaluation: Internal evaluation which checks whether and to what degree the programme has taught what it meant to teach; External evaluation which tries to find out whether and to what degree the programme is useful to the learners in their word. The two kinds of evaluation provide feedback to the whole training programme. Types of syllabus Structural Syllabus 结构教学大纲 Influenced by structuralist linguistics, the structural syllabus is a syllabus for the teaching of a language which is based on a selection of the grammatical items and structure, e.g. tenses, grammatical rules, sentence patterns, which occur in a language and the arrangement of them into an order suitable for teaching. The linguistic units in a sentence may appear in slots: My friend sent me a birthday card last week. This pattern is probably followed by group of substitutional words, also put into slots: Situational Syllabus 情景教学大纲 Situational syllabus is a syllabus which selects, organizes and presents language items based on situations, e.g. at the bank, at the supermarket, at home, etc. The situational syllabus does not have a solid theoretical foundation, but the situationalists accept the view that language is used for communication. The aim of it is to specify the situations in which the target language is used. Usually, the grammatical forms and sentence patterns are introduced and practiced in well-knitted dialogues which may take place in certain situations. My sister brought him a new hat yesterday The situational syllabus sets out to meet the learners’ Teacher lent the girl a dictionary on Sunday. communicative need, but it is still essentially grammatical. The Thus by substituting new elements in one or other of the situations described in a textbook cannot be truly authentic and slots, learners practice the same sentence pattern repeatedly the arrangement of the syllabus is not systematic. until they can produce it automatically. Its drawbacks: it only concentrates on the grammatical forms and the meaning of individual words, but neglects the meaning of the whole context. Students can’t use the forms they’ve learned appropriately in concrete situations. Notional-functional Syllabus 意念-功能教学大纲 Compared to the situational syllabus, the notional-functional syllabus has a much stronger theoretical basis― it is directly influenced by Halliday’s functional grammar and Hymes’ theory of communicative competence. The concept of Notion refers to the meaning one wants to convey, while that of Function refers to what one can do with the language. For example, while saying “Would you please tell me how to get to the library?” the speaker expresses the notion o inquiry and performs the function of asking the way. What the notional-functional syllabus wants the learner to acquire is, first, the knowledge of language structures, and second, the ability to using them in different situations to express ideas. Fully communicative Syllabus 完全的交际教学大纲 The fully communicative syllabus stresses that linguistic competence is only a part of communicative competence. If we focus on communicative skills, most areas of linguistic competence will be developed naturally. Therefore, what we should teach is communication through language rather than language for communication. It is suggested that fully communicative teaching should do away with well-planned syllabuses. What should be decided is the problem of communication to be solved, and the teacher should involve his students into activities in which they imitate his use of language consciously or unconsciously. If the teacher can well direct this process, language learning will take care of itself. Communicative Syllabus 交际教学大纲 A communicative syllabus aims at the learner’s communicative competence. It teaches the language need to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication. There are ten components of a communicative syllabus proposed by Yalden. Tasked-based Syllabus 任务型教学大纲 Task-based syllabuses are more concerned with the classroom processes which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master. These syllabuses consist of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that the learners will engage in class of the target language. Below are six principles that teachers can follow when design tasks: (1) a task should have a clear purples (2) a task should have some degree of resemblance to real-world events (3) a task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying (4) a task should involve the students in some modes of doing things (5) a task should involve the meaning-focused use of language (6) a task should end with a tangible product明显结果 Current trends in syllabus design The co-existence of the old and the new The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus It includes some non-linguistic objectives such as learning strategies and affective cultivation(例如信心，兴趣等) The emphasis on the learning process The emergence of the multi-syllabus Language course reflect different priorities in reaching rather than absolute choices 11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis
Native language plays an important role in the process of second language acquisition. When the native language influences the acquisition of the target language, language transfer 迁移happens. For example, the students’ learned knowledge and skills in native language can be transferred to the second language. When the two languages are similar in structure, then the native language facilitates the target language learning, we call it a positive transfer积极迁移(or
Facilitation便利性); when the two languages are different in structures, then the native language interfere with the target language learning, we call it a negative transfer消极迁移（or Interference干扰）. 11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA) 对比分析
Contrastive analysis a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. The goal of contrastive analysis is to predict hat areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn. Problems with CA
Contrastive analysis helps us to understand language learning and teaching in many ways, but it has some problems:
①: Differences between the native language and the target language can be defined linguistically, but sometimes, difficulties may arise from psychological aspect. Linguistically difficult items may not be psychologically difficult. ②: Contrastive analysis can not predict all errors.
③: Contrastive analysis fails to predict difficulties, and some predicted difficulties don’t seem to be difficult actually. 11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA) Clarification of terms Error错误 is the grammatically incorrect form. It arises from the learners’ lack of knowledge which represents a lack of competence. 不会
Classification of Errors In terms of source of errors Interlingual errors语际错误:(or transfer errors): occure when the learner misuses an item because it shares features with an item in the native language. For example, the learner utilizes some L1 features rather than that of the target language. Intralingual errors语内错误(or developmental errors): are errors within the target language itself, such as overgeneralization, which arises when the learner applies a rule in a situation where the rule does apply. Mistake失误 appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence.会，用错 Lapse refers to slips of the tongue of pen made by either foreign language learners or native speakers. 口误，笔误 In terms of the nature of errors Explanation and example (1)The absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance: e.g. She sleeping. (2)The presence of an item that must not appear in well-formed utterances: e.g. He is words in a factory nearby. (3)The use of a tense marker twice in one sentence: e.g. We didn’t went there. (4)The use of the wrong form of the morpheme or structure: e.g. The dog eated the chicken (5)The incorrect placement of a morpheme (group) in an utterance: e.g. What John is doing? The procedure of EA Type Omissions 省略错误 Additions 添加错误 Double markings 双重标记错误 Misformations 形式错误 Misorderings 顺序错误 Step one: Recognition 识别错误 Step two: Description 描述错误 Step three: Explanation 解释错误 If the sentence produced by the learner is grammatically incorrect, errors occur; If it’s grammatically correct, but is used inappropriately in the communicative context, then mistakes occur. If the erroneous sentence is intelligible, we compare it with the correct sentence produced by a native speaker and list the errors and mistakes. If the meaning of the sentence is not clear, we may refer to the learner’s native language to find out what he means and carry out a contrastive analysis When an error is recognized and described, we then try to explain why the error happened. That is to say, we make hypothesis about the psychological processes which have caused the learner to commit the error. The problems with EA
It is inadequate to rely on errors to study how target language is learned. It is difficult to determine what an error is.
Error analysis overstresses production data and fails to account for error avoidance.
11.6 Testing
In 11.4, we mentioned two kinds of evaluation: external evaluation and internal evaluation. The internal evaluation is necessarily connected with the use of tests― any procedure for measuring ability, knowledge, or performance. 11.6.1 Two different approaches to testing 1. Psycholinguistic-structural approach
2. Psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic approach. 11.6.2 Types of test Aptitude test 学习潜能测试 Aptitude tests attempt to measure the learner’s aptitude or natural abilities to learn languages.测试学习者学习语言的潜能或者天分 This type of test usually consists of some different tests which measure respectively the ability to identify and remember sound patterns in a new language, etc. In order to assess these abilities, artificial language are often employed The purpose of proficiency tests is to discover what the testee already knows about the target language. Proficiency tests are not concerned with any particular course but the learner’s general level of language mastery. An example of proficiency tests is the American TOEFL. Achievement tests assess how much a learner has mastered the contents of a particular course. Clearly, the items in such tests should be based on what has been taught. The midterm and final exams held in schools and colleges are typical tests of this kind. Diagnostic tests are designed to discover mainly what the testee does not know about the language, e.g. a diagnostic English pronunciation test may be used to show which sounds a student is and is not able to pronounce. A test of such kind can help the teacher to find out what is wrong with the previous learning and what should be included in the future work. Proficiency test 水平测试 Achievement test 成绩测试 Diagnostic test 诊断测试 11.6.3 Requirements of a good test Validity and reliability are the two basic requirements for a good test, as was proposed by R. Lado. Validity效度 is the degree to which a test measure what is meant to. If the candidates know some items before the exam the validity will be reduced. There are four kinds of validity. (1) Content validity内容效度 refers to which the test adequately covers the syllabus are to be tested测试在何种程度上覆盖了教学大纲要求的内容 (2)Construct validity编制效度 requires the test to prove the theoretical construct whereupon it is based如果测试与它的基本理论想温和那么它就具有编制效度 (3)Empirical validity实证效度 demands the results of the (4)Face validity卷面效度 is based on the subjective test to correlate with some external criteria.如果测试结果judgment of an observer, unlike the other forms of validity. If the test appears to be measuring what it intends to 与一些外部标准相关，那么它具有实证效度 measure, the test is considered to have face validity. Reality 信度can be defined as consistency. If a test produces the same results when given to the same candidates twice in succession or graded by different people, it is regarded as having a high degree of reliability. There are two kinds of reality. Reality can be affected by two kinds of error. The extrinsic sources of error 外在错误来源consist of the variability of the testers and testees, and the variability of the test situation. The intrinsic sources of error内在错误来源 are within the test itself. These occur when there is a lack of stability or equivalence. (1) stability reliability 稳定性信度is estimated by testing and retesting the same candidates and ten correlating their scores. (2) Equivalence reliability等值信度 means that a measuring device is equivalent to another if they produce the same results when used on the same objects and subjects. 11.7 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching 语料库语言学和语言教学 Language corpora can supply authentic, natural and typical materials and data for language teaching. The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and type of texts selected. Types of corpora (in terms of function, there are four types of corpora) General corpora一般语料库: It is a collection of materials which is broadly homogeneous, not specific to a specialized area. Sample corpora样本语料库: It is a kind of genre-based corpus. It is a collection of short extracts randomly selected from all kinds of genres. Specialized corpora专门语料库: It is useful for language for specific purposes, such as technical, dialectal, etc. Monitor corpora监控语料库: This kind of corpus is gigantic. It has the capacity to hold a state of the language for research purposes. Types of Information Corpora can Provide Frequency information频度信息. Bearing in mind the Grammatical information语法信息. What the corpora show us knowledge of frequency of certain language items and about grammar is far more complicated than what grammar structures, we can decide what to teach and what to books tell about. focus on in the language classroom. Context and co-context information语境和上下文信息. When we cannot tell apart the differences between words or phases having similar meaning, we can look at the context or co-context in which they are used, then we will be clear of the difference. Pragmatics information语用信息. Information from corpora can tell us how language is actually used in communication. Collocation and phraseology information搭配和固定用法信息. Corpus will help us remember collocations where words are frequently used together.
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